Final Deck

Question 1

What is Action research (AR)

Answer 1

Action research is described as a research method suitable for studying technology in social contexts. Researchers help clients to identify and solve a problems.

Question 2

ETHICS IN RESEARCH

Answer 2

Ethics in research concerns issues relating to the research content and the researcher’s relationship to the task. Research ethics include aspects that follow from mandatory legislation, but research ethics are broader than this.

Question 3

Honesty in terms of ethics

Answer 3

meaning scrutinizing the research. Researchers should conduct their work with honesty and integrity. This includes reporting findings in an open, fair and objective way. Honesty also extends to acknowledging limitations and uncertainties in the research process and results.

Question 4

Respect when it comes to ethics

Answer 4

Respect for research participants, society, and the environment. This involves obtaining informed consent from participants, protecting their confidentiality and privacy, and considering the potential impact of the research on individuals and communities.

Question 5

Accountability

Answer 5

Researchers are responsible for the entire research process, from idea to publication and beyond. This means taking ownership of their work, ensuring it adheres to ethical standards and regulatory requirements, and being prepared to address any consequences or implications that may arise.

Question 6

Transparency when it comes to ethics

Answer 6

Transparency is essential for ensuring the reproducibility and credibility of research findings. Researchers should clearly document and communicate their methods, data collection procedures, and analysis to enable others to assess the validity and reliability of the research.

Question 7

Positive results bias

Answer 7

Researchers must guard against the tendency to selectively report or emphasize positive outcomes while neglecting negative findings. This positive result bias can skew the overall body of evidence and mislead both researchers and the wider community. It’s important to present all findings.

Question 8

When is a Qualitative method used?

Answer 8

A qualitative method is used when answering “why” questions. For example people’s perceptions, opinions, ideas, interpretations, values, behavior

Question 9

When is a Quantitative method used?

Answer 9

A Quantitative method is used when answering “how many/much” questions.

Question 10

Explain what a Qualitative method is?

Answer 10

Qualitative method is suitable for researching “why” questions, such as why people have a specific opinion. In a qualitative method data is interpreted, categories and structured. This data is often observations, textual and figures. The qualitative approach is to observe and interpret. A qualitative analysis is thematic analysis (identifying. Analyze and interpret pattern)

Question 11

Explain what a Quantitative method is?

Answer 11

A quantitative method is suitable when trying to research “how many/ much” questions. In a quantitative method data is measured, counted and ranked. This data is often Numerical and statistics. The quantitative approach is to measure and test. The analysis method that is used is statistics. In a quantitative method variables and categories are predefined.

Question 12

Give examples of Qualitative methods

Answer 12

Case study
Focus groups
Interviews
Diary study
Ethnography
Card sorting

Question 13

Explain what a Case study is?

Answer 13

Case study is a qualitative research method that entails conducting a comprehensive examination of a specific case, which could pertain to an individual, a group, or an organisation. It is used to gain a detailed understanding of a specific case or cases. Case studies often take a holistic approach, considering multiple aspects of the case rather than focusing on just one variable or factor.

Question 14

Explain what an interview is in the context of a Qualitative method?

Answer 14

An interview is a qualitative research method that relies on asking questions in order to collect data. Interviewing people is at the heart of qualitative research.
There are several types of interviews:
* Structured interviews have predetermined questions asked in a predetermined order.
* Unstructured interviews are more free-flowing.
* Semi-structured interviews fall in between.

Question 15

Explain what a focus group is?

Answer 15

A focus group is a research method used to gather data through group interaction. A small number of carefully chosen individuals debate a certain issue in a group. focus groups identifies and examines people’s thoughts and behaviours.

Question 16

What is Technical action research (TAR)

Answer 16

Technical action research refers to a systematic approach where practitioners, often in technical fields such as computer science, engage in research activities to solve practical problems or improve processes within their professional domains. The researcher wants to learn something about a technique by using it to solve a client’s problem

Question 17

Contrasting TAR with AR in information system

Answer 17

AR in information systems
- Identify problem in an organization
- Jointly search for a solution and implement it
- Evaluate
- Specify learning
TAR is technology-driven, not problem driven!
- The technology is motivated by a desire to solve a class of problems
- Not a singular problem in a specific situation

In action research the researcher wants to solve a problem for a client, in technical action research the problem is only a way to learn about a specific technique

Question 18

In technical action research, what are the three roles of the researcher?

Answer 18

Designer, helper, researcher

Question 19

Design Science Research (DSR

Answer 19

Design Science Research (DSR) is a research methodology used primarily in information systems. It focuses on creating innovative artifacts to solve complex problems or improve existing systems.

Question 20

What is an artifact in IT-research?

Answer 20

An artifact is something that is created by human begins which don’t exist without human involvement as something either by design or by interpretation.

Example of artifacts are computers, software, methods, models and so on.

Question 21

What is hermeneutics?

Answer 21

Hermeneutics means to develop the ability to understand phenomenon’s from another person’s perspective and to be able to understand and appreciate cultural and social forces that affects their situation.

Question 22

What are the 3 types of literature review and there purpose?

Answer 22

Simplified literature review
- Identify and summarize seminal work in your chosen topic
Systematic literature mapping
- To structure a research area
Systematic literature review
- Gathering and synthesizing evidence

Question 23

Describe the literature review process?

Answer 23

The literature review process involves systematically searching and critically evaluating existing literature relevant to a specific research topic.
Some steps that make a good literature review are:
Clearly defining scope and purpose: Determine the specific research topic you want to explore and establish the boundaries of your review (e.g., timeframe, geographical scope, types of sources).
Search for Relevant Literature: Use academic databases, library catalogs, and search engines to identify relevant literature. Employ a combination of Search terms, keywords, and strings, Quality criteria, Assessment and ranking functions.
Organize and Synthesize Information: Organize the selected sources chronologically based on common themes, topics, or key concepts. Identify patterns, trends, and gaps in the literature, and synthesize the findings to develop a coherent narrative that addresses your research question.
Write the Literature Review: Write the literature review using a clear and structured format. The review should be well organized and replicable.

Some steps that make bad literature review are:
Lack of Focus: A bad literature review may lack a clear focus or research question, resulting in a broad and unfocused review of the literature. Without a specific focus, the review may cover irrelevant topics, leading to confusion and lack of coherence.
Poor Organization: An ineffective literature review may suffer from poor organization, with sources arranged in a careless manner. This can make it difficult for readers to follow the text or identify key themes and trends within the literature.
Lack of Depth: A shallow literature review may provide only superficial coverage of the existing literature, failing to delve deeply into key concepts, theories, or empirical findings. This lack of depth can undermine the credibility and rigor of the review.
Lack of Critical Analysis: A weak literature review may lack critical analysis or evaluation of the sources reviewed. Instead of critically assessing the strengths, weaknesses, and limitations of each source, the review may simply summarize or describe the findings without offering meaningful insights or interpretations.
Existence of Previous Reviews: If comprehensive literature reviews already exist in the field, conducting another review without adding new perspectives or insights may be redundant and unnecessary.

Question 24

What two stages of interpretation are important to hermeneutics?

Answer 24

1.Uncovering interpretation (finding how others have categorised the world)
2.Assigning interpretation (creating new categories)

Question 25

What is Knowledge?

Answer 25

Knowledge is a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information and expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experience and information.

Question 26

What is explicit knowledge?

Answer 26

Formal, codified: documents, databases, books etc

Question 27

What is informal (tacit) knowledge?

Answer 27

Informal, uncodified: values, perspectives, culture, memories

Question 28

What is categorical/descriptive knowledge?

Answer 28

It is conceptualizing in terms of categories, concepts and relations

Question 29

What is explanation knowledge/declarative knowledge?

Answer 29

Declarative knowledge is explanation of why a phenomenon is in a certain way. Cause - effect - relationships - if cause then effect - if condition then result

Question 30

What is evaluation/value knowledge?

Answer 30

Knowledge about the desirable, what we want given specific circumstances. Defining what “user friendly” means for example

Question 31

What is normative/prescriptive knowledge?

Answer 31

Guiding knowledge Advice, instructions, models, methods, tools, checklists… regarding a phenomenon.

Question 32

What are some paradigms of research?

Answer 32

- Positivism – How reality is - Realism – Objects exist independently of our will and knowledge - Interpretivism – Understand humans in their role as social actors - Pragmatism – If success then its good

Question 33

What is positivism?

Answer 33

Working with an observable social reality, the researcher is independent of the research, highly structured.

Question 34

What is realism?

Answer 34

Based on a belief that reality exists independent of human thoughts and beliefs. Social objects or phenomenon's, external to or independent of individuals affect the way people perceive their world, whether they are aware of them or no

Question 35

What is INFORMATION SYSTEMS (IS)

Answer 35

The discipline of information systems (IS) focuses on information (data in a specific context) together with information capturing, storage, processing and analysis/interpretation in ways that supports decision making.

Question 36

COMPUTER SCIENCE (CS)

Answer 36

Computer science is the study of computers and algorithms, including their principles, hardware and software design, their applications, and their impact on industry and society

Question 37

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT)

Answer 37

Information technology (IT) is the study of systemic approaches to select, develop, apply, integrate, and administer secure computing technologies to enable users to accomplish their personal, organizational, and societal goals

Question 38

Why do we do Litterature Review?

Answer 38

- To examine scientific progress and know what has been done - To find a research gap in order to motivate new research

Question 39

How do we do Litterature Review?

Answer 39

By identifying and summarizing existing research and results

Question 40

What is Iterative process?

Answer 40

Returning to earlier stages as you search, read an evaluate

Question 41

What are some steps in the Literature search process?

Answer 41

- Formulate a research topic and useful keywords - Refine the search. ex: date limits - Review your results and revise your search - Evaluate your results - Keep up-to-date with new literature on your topic

Question 42

What should the literature review results be summarized in?

Answer 42

- A related work section - Identification of research gap/problem description

Question 43

What three types of litterature reviews are there?

Answer 43

- Simplified literature review - Systematic literature review - Systematic literature mapping

Question 44

What type of literature review is used to provide a survey of the field?

Answer 44

Systematic literature mapping/scoping

Question 45

At what stage should the simplified literature review be conducted?

Answer 45

Before planning any form of research

Question 46

What is the aim of the simplified literature review?

Answer 46

Idetify and summarize influential work in your chosen topic

Question 47

Purpose of Systematic literature mapping?

Answer 47

To structure a research area

Question 48

Purpose of systematic literature review?

Answer 48

Gathering and synthesizing evidence

Question 49

What type of literature review creates categories?

Answer 49

Systematic literature mapping

Question 50

What type of literature review is used for evaluation and interpretation of research relevant to a particular topic?

Answer 50

Systematic Literature Review

Question 51

What are the three high-level phases in a Systematic Literature Review?

Answer 51

- Planning the review - Conducting the review - Reporting the review

Question 52

What are individual studies that contribute to a systematic review called?

Answer 52

Primary studies

Question 53

What is a form of a secondary study?

Answer 53

Systematic Review

Question 54

What 6 types of information should be in a Literature Review Protocol?

Answer 54

1. Search terms, keywords and strings 2. Databases and sources used 3. Inclution criteria 4. General and specific exclution criteria 5. Quality criteria 6. Assessment and ranking functions

Question 55

What are some signs of a bad literature review?

Answer 55

- Lack of focus - Poor organizaton - Poor quality of sources - Not enough information in the protocol

Question 56

What types of bias can there be in literature review?

Answer 56

- Language bias, geographical - Selection bias - Selecting only results that support your hypothesis - Time related bias: Outdated information

Question 57

What is an experminet?

Answer 57

A test under controlled conditions that is made to demonstrate a known truth, examine the validity of a hypothesis, or determine the efficacy of something previously untried.

Question 58

When and why would an experiments be conducted?

Answer 58

When we need to identify dependable relationships between a cause and its effects. When we need to identify conditions under which such causal relationships hold. Experiments are important for many societal challenges across domains, like engineering (how flexible is this metal?)

Question 59

Challenges of conducting experiments

Answer 59

Choice of experimental design. Interpretation of the results Statistics Identifying and tackling validity threats

Question 60

What is a cause?

Answer 60

Most causes are more accurately called inus conditions. Presence of a match → forest fire? Any given effect often requires many factors to occur, but we rarely know all of them, or how they relate to each other. As a consequence, many causal relationships: are probabilistic rather than deterministic in a strict sense are not universal, but occur only under some conditions or in certain contexts

Question 61

Causality

Answer 61

It is rare that causal relationships hold under all conditions with all types of people and at all historical time periods. It is vital to identify relationships that hold more consistently.

Question 62

Effect – what is an effect?

Answer 62

An effect can be understood as the difference between what actually happened (the fact) and what would have happened if a specific cause had not occurred (the counterfactual). Effect: The effect is essentially the difference between what actually happened (fact) and what would have happened if the cause had not occurred (counterfactual).

Question 63

What is a causal relationship?

Answer 63

The cause preceded the effect. The cause was related to the effect. We can find no plausible alternative explanation for the effect, other than the cause In experiments we: Manipulate the presumed cause (and observe the outcome) Observe whether variation in the cause is related to variation in the effect Attempt to rule out other explanations of the effect

Question 64

Correlation does not imply causation

Answer 64

We may not know which variable came first (i.e., whether the presumed cause preceded the effect). We cannot rule out alternative explanations. If there exists a third variable that causes the effect, this is called a confounding variable, or simply confound.

Question 65

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

Answer 65

This is the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter the variable that can change We want to know if the independent variable affects the dependent variable in some way.

Question 66

DEPENDENT VARIABLE

Answer 66

This is the variable that is measured by the experiment It depends on the independent variable. Effect (result of experiment). The dependent variable is the variable that is observed and measured to see if it is affected by changes in the independent variable.

Question 67

Hypotheses

Answer 67

A hypothesis is a precise problem statement that can be directly tested through an empirical investigation. Example: “The iOS virtual keyboard is faster and more accurate than the Android virtual keyboard.”

Question 68

Randomization

Answer 68

A true experiment must have randomization. Random assignment is intended to create units that are probabilistically similar to each other on average Example: Every individual has the same chance to end up in a given condition. Therefore, any observed differences in outcome are likely to be due to the treatment (= cause)

Question 69

Simulations

Answer 69

Simulation refers to the process of creating and analyzing a model of a real-world system to gain insights into its behaviour or performance. It involves using a computer program to replicate a complex system's essential features and dynamics, allowing researchers to observe, experiment, and make predictions in a controlled and virtual environment.

Question 70

Key aspects of simulations

Answer 70

Modeling: Constructing a representation of the real-world system orphenomenon using mathematical equations, algorithms, or computer programming. Manipulation: Changing variables or parameters in the simulated environment to observe their effects on the system's behavior. Analysis: Collecting and interpreting data generated by the simulation to draw conclusions about the real-world system. Prediction: Extrapolating the simulation results to make predictionsabout the future behavior or outcomes of the real-world system under different conditions.

Question 71

Confounding variable

Answer 71

A variable that is not controlled but can affect the dependent variable.

Question 72

Control Variable

Answer 72

A control variable is a circumstance (not under investigation) that is kept constant while testing the effect of an independent variable More control means the experiment is less generalizable (i.e., less applicable to other people and other situations)

Question 73

Within-subjects

Answer 73

Each participant in a survey is tested on each condition/question Within-subjects advantages: Fewer participants Less “variation due to participants” No need to balance groups (because there is only one group!)

Question 74

Between-subjects

Answer 74

Each participant in a survey is tested on one condition/question only Between-subjects disadvantage More participants (harder to recruit, schedule, etc.) More “variation due to participants” Need to balance groups (to ensure they are more or less the same)

Question 75

Validity threats in research

Answer 75

Validity threats refer to factors that can compromise the validity of the research findings. Internal validity threats ( researcher's ability) - Reasons why inferences (assumption) that the relationship between two variables is causal may be incorrect External validity - Reasons why inferences about how study results would hold over variations in persons, settings, treatments, and outcomes might be incorrect.

Question 76

What is SURVEYS

Answer 76

Any means of asking people for information

Question 77

What are some Survey characteristics

Answer 77

Surveys can be a paper or web-based, participants answer the questions on their own - No chance to clarify or ask follow-ups - It is hard to know how questions are interpreted - Once the survey is out it is out

Question 78

In what cases are Surveys used?

Answer 78

We use surveys when we need to investigate a clearly defined topic that involves measuring - Knowledge - Opinions - Behaviours - Perception

Question 79

What to think about when developing a survey?

Answer 79

We need our surveys to have a few important properties - Relevant to our research questions - Easy to interpret - Be interpreted in the same way by all participants general steps to survey development - Define variables to measures - Develop/adapt/find appropriate questions to measure those - Validate and pilot

Question 80

Variable definition and survey Questions

Answer 80

The first step in developing a survey is to define variables. Then, come up with questions to measure those variables. Often we use several questions for the same variable, to capture different aspects of the variable topic These questions can be: - Knowledge questions - Likert scale questions When developing questions there are some things to consider - Clarity - Consistency - Question order - Response order

Question 81

Validation and Piloting

Answer 81

Validity concerns how well the survey measures what it intends to measure Expert review is one typical approach - Focus on validity - Ask domain experts about the survey questions (supervisor, peers) Reliability concerns how consistently it does that Distribute the survey to a small set of respondents and test how it goes - Typically adding a comment question - Focus on reliability (are people answering as expected

Question 82

Survey Sampling

Answer 82

Our target group is called population - and we can typically not ask everyone in that population. Instead, we need to draw a sample. A sample is a subset of our population which we assume to be representative of the population at large.

Question 83

Random Sampling

Answer 83

Random sample - We sample at random, and give everyone an equal chance of being selected - Practically, we could select names at random from a list of everyone in the population - Gold standard – but expensive and often infeasible

Question 84

Stratified sampling

Answer 84

Stratified sampling (a practical approach to random sampling) - The population is split into sub-population based on criteria such as age, gender…. - A random sample is drawn from each sub-population - Intends to ensure a greater spread over the population

Question 85

Convenience sampling

Answer 85

Convenience sampling - Aka accidental sampling or opportunity sampling - Involves recruiting participants “close at hand” - Includes asking your friends, using social media, etc - We cannot know how representative the sample is of the target population

Question 86

Purposive sampling

Answer 86

Purposive sampling - Selective sampling where “high-value” respondents are invited to answer - The idea is to include participants who are likely to generate valuable data - Useful in some cases, but hard to generalize from the results

Question 87

Bias in Surveys

Answer 87

Sampling bias is skewness in results due to improper sampling. Confirmation bias - Participants tend to agree rather than disagree with opinions - Try to avoid opinionated questions Question order bias - Question order may impact how participants answer - Randomize questions to avoid Survey fatigue bias - Participants may get fatigued and stop answering properly - Limit the survey length

Question 88

In Data Analysis researcher may impact the results. True/False?

Answer 88

True

Question 89

Traits of Qualitative Data (3)

Answer 89

- Non-numerical information - Often textual - Focuses on thematic analysis

Question 90

Traits of Quantative Data(3)

Answer 90

- Numerical - Best described in numbers - Uses statistics as a method

Question 91

What is a confidence interval? (CI)

Answer 91

Measure of how confident we are in our results

Question 92

What is a good confidece level?

Answer 92

95%

Question 93

What typ of statistics are used to describe data with means, modes, standard deviation and such?

Answer 93

Descriptive Statistics

Question 94

What type of statistics are used to draw conclutions, correlations, hypothesis testing?

Answer 94

Infernal Statistics

Question 95

What are the 4 data levels?

Answer 95

- Nominal - Ordinal - Interval - Ratio

Question 96

What type of data is Nominal Data?

Answer 96

Categorical data. Ex: Which animal is your favourite?

Question 97

What descriptives does Nominal Data use?

Answer 97

Frequencies and percentages

Question 98

What type of data is Ordinal Data?

Answer 98

Ordered data with undefined or unequal lengt between steps. Ex: How tasy is vanilla ice cream? - Tasty, - Neutral, - Untasty

Question 99

What descriptives does Ordinal Data use?

Answer 99

Frequencies, percetages and median calculation

Question 100

What type of data is Interval and Ratio?

Answer 100

Ordered data with equal distance between data points

Question 101

What is the difference between Interval and Ratio data?

Answer 101

-Interval: no defined 0 -Ration: defined 0

Question 102

What is Standard Deviation?

Answer 102

A measure of how dispersed (spread of data) the data is

Question 103

Inferential Statistics is a good way to use a smaller group to make an assumtion for the population at large? True/False?

Answer 103

True

Question 104

What significance level(SI) should Inferential Statistics have?

Answer 104

95%

Question 105

What are the 2 main approaches to Inferential Statistics?

Answer 105

- Hypothesis testing - Correlation testing

Question 106

What is a null hypotheses?

Answer 106

Opposite variable of a hypotheses.

Question 107

What would the null hypothesis be of "Everybody likes ice cream"?

Answer 107

"We cannot prove that everybody likes ice cream"

Question 108

What is a Type 1 Error in Statistical Errors?

Answer 108

Reject a true null hypothesis (false positive)

Question 109

What is a Type 2 Error in Statistical Errors?

Answer 109

Accept a false null hypothesis (false negative)

Question 110

What tests can be used to get the p-value?

Answer 110

- T-test - Rank-Sum test - Chi2

Question 111

What is linear correlation?

Answer 111

Correlation between 2 variables where one variable increses with the other

Question 112

What is p-hacking?

Answer 112

-Shotgunning statistical results until something is positive - It involves selectively analyzing data or conducting multiple statistical tests until a desired result - Something will be positive sooner or later

Question 113

What is Thematic Analysis

Answer 113

Systematically generating codes and themes from qualitative data

Question 114

What are the 6 steps of Thematic Analysis?

Answer 114

1. Familiarizing with the data 2. Generating initial codes 3. Searching for themes 4. Reviewing themes 5. Defining and naming themes 6. Producing report

Question 115

What is an example of a Thematic Analysis?

Answer 115

Ex: Inteviews with ice cream manufacurers about how their changes to recepies might change peoples opinions on favourite ice cream flavours.

Question 116

How should an academic writing be?

Answer 116

Clear: - Easy to understand, impossible to misunderstand Concise: - Anything not needed for the task at hand should be omitted Objective: - Reflection of the work

Question 117

Academic writing

Answer 117

Academic writing has a purpose (contribute to scientific knowledge), and it’s for specific audience (scientists, academics), tone (unemotional, unbias)

Question 118

What is the structure of academic writing?

Answer 118

Introduction - Introduce the relevant literature - Problem description Materials and methods - What research methods have been used? - How was the study done? Results - Objectively state finds - Focus on results Discussion - Interpret you result - Tie result back to the literature by answering the knowledge gap Conclusions and implications

Question 119

Bias in academic writing

Answer 119

Bias comes from you and your design, and it can affect the results based on several issues: e.g. chosen sample, investigation method and style of analysis.

Question 120

What are some qualitative methods?

Answer 120

- Case study research - Ethnography -Interviews -Focus group -Diary study

Question 121

What are the main principles of a qualitative method?

Answer 121

- To answer "why" questions. - To observe and interpret data

Question 122

Describe a case study research process.

Answer 122

The purpose of a case study research is to conduct a comprehensive examination of a specific case to understand the complexities of the case.

Question 123

What is ethnography?

Answer 123

Ethnography is a method that looks at social interaction of users in a specific environment. Data is collected through observation and interviews to conclude how individuals and societies function.

Question 124

Describe a focus group.

Answer 124

A focus group is used to gather data through group interactions. A small number of people debate a certain topic to shed light on certain questions. They can provide more nuanced feedback and are easier to to organize than experiments.

Question 125

Describe a diary study.

Answer 125

In a diary study, participants keep a log of their thoughts, experiences and activities over a period of time. Diary studies provide a self-reported record of the participants behavior which can be used to understand habits.

Question 126

Describe participant observation.

Answer 126

This is a type of study that can help us understand how participants act and behave. A researcher enters a specific environment and observes how the individuals interact and behave.

Question 127

Describe card sorting.

Answer 127

Card sorting is a way to understand how individuals group and categories certain information. It can give a picture of an individuals thought process.

Question 128

Describe a longitudinal study.

Answer 128

This type of study is conducted over a longer period of time with repeated observations. A disadvantage is that they are usually expensive and time-consuming.