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PSYC 325: Socialization - Media and Effects > final content > Flashcards

final content Flashcards

1
Q

define social media

A
  • internet platforms/sites that allow users to create/share/exchange content
  • trends for which platforms are most popular have changed over the years (increase in youtube, tiktok, instagram but decrease in facebook, twitter)
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2
Q

describe affordances of SM

A

affordances = what does something allow you to do

  1. identifiability = have a choice to decide how anonymous you are
  2. cues management = can control how you present yourself
  3. permanence = information can be stored and found later
  4. publicness information can be shared easily with larger groups
  5. availability = easy to locate information and people
  6. asynchronicity = engage when it suits you
  7. quantifiability = numerical social metrics
  8. interactivity = exchange messages with others

[Ariya Can Post Instagram Pictures And Interact Quickly]

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3
Q

define identity

A

a sense of who you are, what you will become, and how you fit into the world (unifying sense of who you are across contexts)

  • main challenge of adolescent years
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4
Q

explain common theories on identity development in adolescents

A
  1. identity stability vs confusion
    - identity stability/cohesion = stable sense of who you are
    - confusion = not ideal for development; unable to integrate different aspects
  2. exploration vs commitment
    (exploration = testing new selves, commitment = figuring out who you are)
  • identity diffusion (low explore, low commit)
  • identity foreclosure (low explore, high commit) → early adolescence + strict parents
  • identity moratorium (high explore, low commit) → mid adolescence
  • identity achievement (high explore, high commit) → end of adolescence + associated with positive self image, flexibility, independence
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5
Q

discuss how social media may provide a context to construct identity and a space to explore identity

A
  1. cue management and asynchronicity: offer opportunities to construct and display an identity → can choose what/how/when to present (eg. through photos/images, usernames, avatars, self-descriptions, sexuality, group membership)
  2. online identity experiments: pretend to be someone else
  • explore identity
  • more when SM was less image based
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6
Q

describe research findings on personality cues in selfies (are our online self-portrayals accurate) → Qiu et al paper

A

RQ: Are cues to personality present in selfies AND can other people detect our personality from our selfies

participant x own BIG5

  • E = not related
  • A = emotional positivity, low camera height
  • C = public location
  • N = duckface
  • O = emotional positivity

conclusions

  1. cues in selfies were linked to self-rated personality
  2. observers only accurately judged openness
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7
Q

define self concept clarity

A

the degree to which our beliefs about our identity are clearly defined and stable (strong; consistent sense of ID)

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8
Q

what beliefs are associated with low self-concept clarity

A
  • my beliefs about myself often conflict with one another
  • my beliefs about myself seem to change frequently
  • it is often hard for me to make up my mind about things because i don’t really know what i want
  • i spend a lot of time wondering about what kind of person i am
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9
Q

benefits of higher self concept clarity

A
  1. psychological adjustment
  2. higher self esteem
  3. better wellbeing

varies with culture: less relationship between SCC and outcomes in collectivistic cultures

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10
Q

explain the fragmentation hypothesis

A
  • experimentation with identity online, and exposure to many different ideas leads to confusion
  • affordances of social media lead to more confusion and less clarity
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11
Q

explain the unity hypothesis

A
  • different views online may serve as a model and sounding board, can help to develop and corroborate identity
  • several perspectives can help you figure out more clarity in sense of self
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12
Q

what do most studies find about use of social media and self concept clarity (in terms of fragmentation and unity)

A
  • most studies suggest a negative relationship between social media use and self-concept clarity
  • may depend on intention/type of use/individual
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13
Q

what are the negative impacts of social media on self-esteem

A
  1. upward social comparison
  2. effects on body image
  3. negative feedback/lack of approval from others
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14
Q

what are the positive impacts of social media on self-esteem

A
  1. positive feedback/approval from others
  2. social connections
  3. feeling control
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15
Q

discuss research on the link between SM and self-esteem (valkenberg study)

A
  • 55% of SM experiences were viewed as positive → linked to increases in SE
  • 18% of SM experiences viewed as negative → linked to decreases in SE
  • ind with lower average SE benefited more from SM
  • ind with higher SE instability benefited more from positive SM
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16
Q

in general what do studies find about the link between SM and self-esteem and the factors that might impact it

A

studies show mixed results

  • depend on reactions: positive feedback increases SE
  • depend on type of use: more negative relationship (eg. addictive/viewing others’ profiles) → poor SE
  • individual and situational differences
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17
Q

define narcissism

A

a personality trait consisting of elevated self-concept

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18
Q

define the two types of narcissism

A
  1. grandiose narcissism = extroverted, callous form
  2. vulnerable narcissism = introverted, neurotic form (defensive, drawn inwards)
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19
Q

what does research find about link between SM and narcissism

A
  • narcissism is increasing; linked with increased SM use

small, consistent link between SM use and grandiose narcissism but not vulnerable

  • linked to more time on social media
  • more friends on social media
  • more frequent updates/more activity
  • NOTE: possible directionality issue
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20
Q

what are the models/explanations for why there is a relationship between narcissism and SM use

A
  1. narcissism → more SM use
  • self-regulation (self-enhancement) model: social media serves as a useful platform for promoting oneself so narcissists are drawn to it
  • fit model: the wide but shallow connections of social media are a good fit for narcissistic individuals
  1. other explanations
  • trait model: it’s not narcissism but traits associated with grandiose narcissism (extraversion)
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21
Q

consider why social media use in adolescence may relate to sexual identity development

what affordances of SM allow for development of sexual ID

A
  • adolescence is a crucial time for development of sexuality and sexual identity
  • SM gives ability to declare sexual identity; can use social media to establish/promote your sexual identity
  • teens frequently use SM/internet to learn about sex, talk about sex, and construct sexual identities → talk to others, expt, navigate sexual ID

affordances of SM that allow space for development of sexual identification

  1. identifiability/anonymity
  2. availability
  3. asynchronicity
  4. interactivity
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22
Q

what are the positive impacts of SM on sexual identity development for LGBT youth

A

social media provides beneficial contexts for sexual identity development:

  1. information
  2. models
  3. interaction
  4. social support
  5. exploration (what does it mean to have this ID)

especially for multiply marginalized and/or underrepresented individuals (eg. LGBT youth of color, rural youth, religious youth, etc)

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23
Q

what are the negative impacts of SM on sexual identity development for LGBT youth

A
  1. more likely to be targeted by cyberbulling
  2. more identity management?
  • managing their SM platform/thinking about who to block → self-identity clarity (more fragmentation)
  1. permanence of social media may not align with shifts in identity
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24
Q

define fandom and it’s unique characteristics

A

fandom = investment in a particular object or idea (eg. sports, TV, kpop, music, books)

  • community based (fanship = individual interest vs fandom = community, connection with others of similar interests)
  • creating and consuming fanwork (eg. fanfics)
  • amplified with the emergence of social/internet-based media
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25
Q

what are the positive outcomes linked with participating in fandoms

A

high proportion of fandom participants are sexual/gender minorities (ie. queer) → ~70%

  • lack of similar identities in mainstream media (space to see and create yourself)
  • a lot of fan-created content has queer content (ie. slash → same gender)
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26
Q

discuss impacts of fandoms in identity development for LGBT youth (craig and mcinroy paper)

A

RQ: how might involvement in online fandom communities impact sexual identity development in queer youth?

quantitative = stages of sexual identity development:

  1. questioning
  2. awareness
  3. acceptance
  4. disclosure

findings: fandom participants met sexual identity development milestones at earlier ages than non-fandom participants (ie. earlier to know and tell close others that they were sexual minority)

qualitative:

  1. fandom participants reached sexual development stages at earlier ages
  2. fandom participants discussed that fandom instigated and quickened sexual identity development
  3. fandom participants identified with more complex and non-traditional identity labels (eg. pansexal vs gay)
  4. fandom participants discussed that fandom provided them access to identity language labels
26
Q

what are limitations of the craig and mcinroy study

A
  • correlation vs causation
  • directionality: perhaps people who realize earlier are more drawn to fandoms
27
Q

discuss nature of online friendships

A
  • common to spend time with friends and social connections online → big context where peer relationships happen (gaming, gaming sites)
  • common to make new friends online
  • overlap in online and offline relationships (most of those adolescents interact with online are also known offline)

extra context:
development of ID + intimacy and relationship are the hallmark of teenagers/YA years

  • teen TV shows are centered on peer groups/context shows recognition of importance of peer groups
28
Q

do online interactions involve more or less intimacy than in-person interactions (definitions and models)

A
  • intimacy = the abilities to form and maintain close relationships with others
  1. cues-filtered-out theories: without same interpersonal cues as face to face, it has a negative impact on intimacy (people disclose less)
  2. hyperpersonal model: people disclose, emotions deeper, more intimacy online
  • ability for asynchronicity, manipulate cues (choose words carefully), physical distance
  • these affordances allow MORE disclosure
  • may depend on the platform (eg. text based)

more support for hyperpersonal model

29
Q

what are some pros and cons of using SM for social connection (peer interactions)

A
  1. changes frequency and immediacy of peer interactions
  2. shift the networks of peer interactions
  3. change nature of peer interactions

lots of debates; more theories than consistent evidence

30
Q

contrast the different hypotheses around impacts of social media on peer relationships in adolescence

A
  1. reduction hypothesis = social displacement → time on social media argued to take take time from face to face social interactions leading to increased depression and loneliness
    - support from older studies of online interactions
    - interactions have changed a lot (people you interact with now on social media are people you already have relationships with)
  2. stimulation hypothesis = social media argued to allow for:
    - more social interactions
    - larger social network
    - better social connections

STUDY: friendship quality was higher for social network users that non-users

  • research shows positive correlation between social media use and friendship closeness
  • correlation vs causation (is it friendship quality that predicts better connections? use SM as another outlet to enhance connection)
  • lots of variability across individuals (better for some but not others)
  1. rich get richer hypothesis = individuals who have strong social skills who are comfortable in social settings benefit more from online relationships
  2. social compensation hypothesis =
    individuals who have challenges in face to face social relationships benefit from online relationships
  • social anxiety
  • socially lonely
  • marginalized identities

research supports both social compensation and rich get richer (may depend on)

  • age (rich get richer more true for teens)
  • reasons for social media use
  • reasons for social challenges
31
Q

is social media good or bad for social connection?

A
  • high variability exists!
  • similar distribution of people with positive and negative relationships between closeness and time on social media
32
Q

do individual differences in peer susceptibility influence the impact of social media on social connection? (armstrong-carter paper)

A

RQ:
- Is use of social media related to teen’s feelings of social connectedness, social craving, and sensation seeking?
- does the relationship differ for teens who are viewed as more/less susceptible to social influences?

measures:

  1. social media use
  2. social connectedness
  3. social craving
  4. sensation seeking
  5. peer ratings for susceptibility to peer influence

results:

  • least susceptible: time on SM didn’t matter for connection (no corr) + no effect of social craving
  • most susceptible: more social media = LESS connected + more SM = MORE feelings of social craving/sensation seeking
  • FOMO as a possible explanation
33
Q

what were the limitations of the armstrong-carter paper

A
  • data was collected during covid (non-generalizable)
34
Q

define self-disclosure

A

self-disclosure = sharing of intimate information

35
Q

describe how social media for self-disclosure might relate to social connection

A
  • shown to promote connection in offline relationships → sharing info = more connection; helps gather social support, build authenticity
  • same appears to be true in online realtionships
  • study: instant messaging → online self-disclosure → quality of friendships
  • affordances of social media allow for more disclosure? (ie. hyperpersonal model)?
36
Q

what are impacts of negative self-disclosure on social connection

A

some types of online self-disclosure are NOT good for social connections?

  • excessive reassurance seeking (eg. sad fishing, trauma dumping)
  • non-authentic disclosure
  • online disclosure interfering with in-person interaction (eg. trying to take pics for SM during dinner with friends)

STUDY: when a phone was present during an important (vs casual) conversation, it made people feel less close (ie. lower relationship quality) EVEN if the phone was not being used.

37
Q

how do adolescence use SM during romantic relationship

A
  1. disseminate information about romantic relationships
  • “facebook official”: some studies have linked to higher relationship satisfaction → provide relationship security?
  • smaller effect for teens vs adults (perhaps a generational/age issue)
  1. build connection
  • private and public messages
  • use to signal trust in relationships (eg. sharing passwords)
  • surveillance
  • elicit jealousy
38
Q

how do adolescence use SM after relationships dissolve

A
  1. maintain communication, access to information
  2. exposure to info may relate to slowed healing/growth, more stress
  3. provoke former partners
39
Q

define cyberaggression

A

cyberagression = intentionally harmful, hurtful, offending behaviours such as the sending of rude, threatening, or offensive messages, using electronic means

(eg. sextortion, revenge porn, swatting, trolling, image-based sexual abuse, digital dating violence, cyberbullying, cyberstalking)

40
Q

define cyberbullying and it’s age progression

A

cyberbullying = any behaviour performed through electronic or digital media by individuals or groups that repeatedly communicates hostile or aggressive messages intended to inflict harm or discomfort onto others

  • what counts as repeated
  • does there need to be power imbalance

DATA:

  • typically starts around age 8
  • peaks in early adolescence (13-14)
  • declines around 16-17
41
Q

how is cyberbullying similar to or distinct from traditional bullying

A

cyberbullying vs face to face

  • easier to be cyclical (someone can be the victim AND perpetrator) due to ease of communication unlike in person
  • there is also an observer involved (eg. those who see the comments)

similar to traditional bulling

  • same people tend to be involved in both in-person and cyberbullying (both victims and bullies)

some are distinct

  • 30% of cyberbullied youth report not knowing who the perpetrator is (in-person bullying would know)
  • victims may be less likely to report cyberbullying unlike traditional bullying
42
Q

describe the impacts of cyberbullying

A

impacts of cyberbullying may be more sever than face to face

  • poorer physical health
  • externalizing problems
  • internalizing problems → depression, psychopathology, self-harm
43
Q

why are impacts of cyberbullying distinct from traditional bullying (media affordances)

A

affordances of social media:

  1. identifiability: lead to disinhibited behaviour by perpetrtors
  2. accessibility: easier to locate victims
  3. asynchronicity: victimization can occur at any time; perpetrators don’t have to see immediate consequences
  4. permanence and publicness: victimization content can be rapidly spread
  5. quantifiability: may be perceived as more harsh for victims, more rewarding for perpetrators
44
Q

describe what cyberdating violence looks like

A

non-sexual online violence:

  1. monitoring
  2. controlling behaviours
  3. cyberstalking
  4. online intrusion
  5. relationship violence: threatening, insulting, humiliating partner using online technology

sexual online violence

  1. use of technology to sexually coerce
  2. homophobic attacks
  3. sexual humiliation (eg. revenge porn)
45
Q

what are the rates of cyberdating abuse

A

in adolescents: 24% perpetration; 36% victimization
in young adults: 45% perpetration; 44% victimization

experiences of cyber-aggression often predict/associated with poorer wellbeing

46
Q

what are factors that predict perpetration and victimization of cyberdating abuse

A

perpetration:

  1. sexist beliefs
  2. jealousy
  3. substance abuse
  4. narcissism
  5. bullying

victimization:

  1. depressive symptoms
  2. anxiety
  3. other risk taking behaviour
  4. poor adjustment in school
  5. family difficulties
47
Q

discuss gender as a factor associated with perpetrating/victimization of cyberdating abuse (reed paper)

A

RQ:

  • does the prevalence of digital dating abuse differ across gender
  • do the feelings associated with digital dating abuse differ across gender

measures:

  1. digital dating abuse → victimization and perpetration
  2. distress and behavioural response following victimization

results:

  1. girls more likely to have been victims of digital sexual coercions (boys more likely to perpetrate) → otherwise few gender differences
  2. girls were significantly more upset (distress) by digital dating abuse

gendered/heterosexual scripts playing out in online relationships (boys as pursuers; scripts may also play out in differences in stress responses)

48
Q

what are some limitations of the reed paper

A
  • differences in likeliness to self report
    • difference in age stage of when boys vs girls are impacted by the effects of coersion
    • power dynamics in the relationship
    • possible that some may not be aware that the behaviour is considered coersion
49
Q

define well-being

A
  • wellbeing = feeling well in ourselves/our body (several components: physical AND psychological)
  • psychological wellbeing = emotions, mental health, life satisfaction
50
Q

explain how social media may impact wellbeing (general categories)

A
  1. access to information: accessing health information (availability affordance of social media) → don’t know if info is reliable
  2. direct impacts: physical injury, posture, eye strain, dequervain syndrome
  3. indirect impacts (sleep)
51
Q

how does social media use impact sleep (generally)

A
  • sleep is important for wellbeing → adolescents don’t get enough sleep
  • social media use is negatively associated with sleep amount and quality
  1. bright lights makes it harder to fall asleep at night (small effect)

STUDY: half assigned to read a physical copy vs ebook

  • longer to fall asleep (higher sleep latency)
  • slept for shorter amount of time
  • not a huge effect (9 mins)
  1. emotionally arousing: after turning off phone, brain is still thinking; heart rate still going (some link by minimal)
  2. displacement: time spent online takes away from time for sleeping in multiple periods: (1) bed time displacement (2) sleep displacement
  • strongest evidence!!
52
Q

discuss the relationship between SM and sleep, reasons for sleep displacement (scott and woods paper)

A

FOMO = a general state of anxiety at missing out on rewarding experiences, often driving social media engagement

  • thought of as a personality or individual difference (some are HIGH some are LOW on FOMO)

RQ:

  • does FOMO lead to increased nighttime social media use → later bedtimes
  • does FOMO lead to increased nighttime social media use → cognitive arousal → longer time to fall asleep

results:

  • FOMO links to nighttime social media use which impacts bedtime and sleep duration
  • FOMO also leads to pre-sleep cognitive arousal (even when NOT on phones) which also impact sleep onset latency; resulting in less sleep
53
Q

discuss whether social media might impact user’s mood/emotion through emotional contagion

A

emotional contagion = emotional states can be transferred to others

  • potentially due to more self disclosure affordance of SM
  • STUDY: manipulated feed of facebook users (algorithm showed less positive or less negative posts
    • measured positivity or negativity of emotional content in people’s own posts
    • seeing less positive posts → posts were less positive and vv. (SMALL effect size)
    • emotional contagion: what we post mirrors emotionality of others
    • CONTROVERSIAL: how meaningful is effect size? ethics (is it ok to manipulate fb content for research without user consent?)
54
Q

describe research on relationship between SM and wb (early studies)

A

high use of internet linked to depression

  • introduce internet and measured depression 1 year later (increase in depression and loneliness)
  • but online media looked different in 1996 than now
55
Q

describe research on relationship between SM and wb (correlation)

A

small relationship; mixed results

  • more time on social media; more depressive symptoms
  • possible direction effect? depressed populations population spend more time on SM
56
Q

describe research on relationship between SM and wb (experimental design)

A

if social media is reduced → less depressive symptoms

STUDY: for three weeks, one group limited SM to 10 mins per day

  • less SM → less depressive symptoms
  • most impactful for those who had high baseline depressive symptoms

findings hold for most but not all experimental studies (varies by length of study and amount of reduction in use)

  • some find worse or no effects
  • less social media may decrease depression but increase FOMO or loneliness
57
Q

describe research on relationship between SM and wb (taken together)

A

most research suggests that social media may overall have a small negative impact on well-being

  • does not appear to be a strong effect
  • debated
  • type of use may matter
58
Q

discuss how the relationship between social media use and psychological wellbeing might differ across active vs passive use

A
  • active = facilitates exchange with others (chatting, posting, sharing)
  • passive = lurking, consuming information without changes

STUDY:

  • negative relationship between active media use and depression/anxiety
  • passive relationship with depression and anxiety

EXPERIMENT

  • undergraduates
  • cnds: active use (posting, sharing, reacting, commenting); passive (browsing, scrolling, looking)
  • results: immediately after, no difference // at end of day, passive group had worse wellbeing

recent studies challenge the active-passive (effects may not be consistent as once reported)

59
Q

debate the existence and definition of addictive social media use

A
  • no agreed upon conceptualization
  • compulsive pattern of use that disrupts daily life
  • preoccupation with use, loss of control, increased tolerance, withdrawal with restrictions, impact on interpersonal relationships and mood
  • rates estimated 5-25% of teens/young adults
  • is it a cause or consequence of distress?
60
Q

discuss how the relationship between SM and psychological wb might differ across individual (dispositional)

A

greater risk for

  • adolescents with heightened mental health concerns → greater risk
  • challenges with self-regulation → greater risk (more likelihood of problematic use)
61
Q

discuss how the relationship between SM and psychological wb might differ across individual (contextual)

A

environment/how environment responds to you identity

  1. LGBT youth → greater benefit (social identity and support)
  2. low income use → greater risk (may be related to less involved parenting)
  3. racialized youth → both more risk and more benefit (duality)
    • eg. being presented with videos of deaths of other black is bad
    • positive community of other black individuals
62
Q

discuss how the relationship between SM and psychological wb might differ across individual (developmental)

A

many time points of heightened risks

  1. younger adolescents → more risk
  • 11–13 for girls ; 14-16 for boys (related to puberty?)
  1. also heightened risk in late adolescence
  • 18-20 for both boys and girls
  • confounded potentially by life transition, making time period particularly bad
63
Q

consider homogeneity, heterogeneity, and duality in adolescents perception of SM experience (van der waal paper)

A

qualitative study: asking adolescents to explain their individual experiences of social media use and their perceptions of the effects on mood/wellbeing

interviewed on:

  • motives and moods leading to social media use
  • activities on social media
  • affective (mood) responses to social media use
  • perception of long-term consequences of social media use

results:

  1. homogeneity
  • motives for use → connection, entertainment, inspiration, information
  • similar reason of usage across teens
  1. heterogeneity
  • platforms used, type of use
  • links between mood and social media - different feelings after use
  • long term effects discussed
  1. duality (happens within an ind)
  • experience of both positive and negative emotions with use
  • perception of both positive and negative long-term effects

PSYC 325: Socialization - Media and Effects (3 decks)

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