Final

Question 1

Definition of Psychology

Answer 1

The systematic, scientific study of behaviors and mental processes

Question 2

What are the goals of psychology?

Answer 2

Describe: describe the various ways that organisms behave in different circumstances
Explain: explain the cause of behavior
Predict: predict how organisms will behave in certain circumstances
Control: control an organisms’s behavior

Question 3

Major theories that explain problems in functioning

Answer 3

Biological: emphasis on how our genetics and physiology interact with our environments to influence learning, personality, memory, motivation, emotions, and other traits and abilities
Behavioral: studies how we learn behaviors or modify existing ones-emphasis on rewards and punishers-can include mental or cognitive responses in addition to observable behaviors/how we think about the rewards or punishers that we receive
Humanistic: emphasizes each individual has freedom in directing his future, says we all strive for personal growth and self-fulfillment/because of emphasis on free-will and lack of experimental methods, sometimes seen as more as philosophy and not science of human behavior/positive psychology is the scientific study of optimal human functioning, focusing on strength and virtues of individuals

Question 4

How is structuralism different from functionalism or gastalt or behaviorism?

Answer 4

Structuralism: elements of the mind/Wundt considered father of psychology and structuralism/asked individuals to look inward and report their sensations as (un)pleasant/believed sensations and perceptions make up the consciousness of the mind/criticized as very narrow and subjective, it’s not useful just to examine sensations//but ideas started the examination of what is the mind
Functionalism: (or structural functionalism) is the perspective in sociology according to which society consists of different but related parts, each of which serves a particular purpose/problems in a single part of society can disrupt the whole
Gastalt: emphasized that the whole pattern of something is more important to our minds than just the sum of its parts/studies examined how we perceive things that happen around us(lights blinking appear to be moving)/Wertheimer and other gastalt psychologists studied how sensations are assembled into meaningful perceptual experiences/advancement over previous theories because it added how our minds interpret events
Behaviorism: refers to a psychological approach which emphasizes scientific and objective methods of investigation/only concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviors, and states all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment

Question 5

Career option(s) for psychologists

Answer 5

Academic Counselor
Case Worker
Child Care Worker

Question 6

Explain types of descriptive research and their advantages/disadvantages

Answer 6

Survey: asking a set of questions by phone, mail or in person/send a survey to all parents in a school district asking about symptoms of ADHD in their child//A-quick and efficient,can compare answers, helps to identify problems and evaluate treatment plans//D-errors, bias
Naturalistic observation: watching the individuals in a natural setting such as a school, park or museum to see how many children display symptoms//A-more “typical” behavior//D-researcher bias, lack of control makes it impossible to assign cause
Case study: in-depth analysis of the thoughts, feelings, beliefs, experiences, behaviors, or problems of a single individual//A-detailed info allows greater understanding of a single person’s life//D-researcher bias,difficult to generalize

Question 7

Describe correlations in research, what they tell us and what a positive or negative correlation means

Answer 7

Correlation Design: Looks for an association or relationship between the occurrence of two or more events//D-can not explain a cause & effect//A-provide clues to the actual causal relationship, guides research to look farther//Ex: does ADHD occur more often in boys or girls?//Does the diagnosis correlate with gender?
Positive: means as there is more of one variable, there is also more of the second variable//Ex: as children grow in height, their brain size increases too
Negative: means as there is more of one variable, there is less of the second variable//Ex: as children get older, they tend to cry less to get their needs met

Question 8

What is an independent and a dependent variable in experimental research?

Answer 8

Independent variable: a treatment or something that the researcher controls or manipulates
Dependent variable: one or more of the participants’ behaviors that are used to measure the potential effects of the treatment or independent variable

Question 9

Explain what is a control group, random selection and double-blind procedure in experiments?

Answer 9

Control group: participants who undergo all the same procedures as the experimental participants but don’t receive the treatment
Random selection: each participant in a sample population has an equal chance of being selected for the experiment/Ex: draw numbers, flip a coin, select every 3rd person who is eligible on a list of names, etc
Double-blind procedure: neither participants or the researchers know which group is receiving the active treatment//eliminates chances the results will be biased by expectations

Question 10

What is a placebo?

Answer 10

Placebo: a pill, injection, or other treatment that looks like it could work but, in fact, has no true effects

Question 11

Describe the difference between longitudinal and cross-sectional time spans

Answer 11

Longitudinal: Same group studied at different times//Ex: study of children age 5, then again at age 10
Cross-Sectional: Differing groups studied at the same time//Ex: study a group of children age 5 and another group age 10 (this means the study can be completed sooner instead of waiting for the 5 year-olds to grow)

Question 12

Identify the reasons for double-blind and control group in research

Answer 12

The control group is necessary for comparison.

The double-blind experiment is to prevent bias in the experimentation results.

Question 13

Explain what is important for ethics in research

Answer 13

Informed consent
Protection from harm
Privacy
Knowledge of results of the experiment
Beneficial treatments offered afterwards

Question 14

What kinds of cells are in the brain?

Answer 14

Glial cells: Provide scaffold to guide the growth of
developing neurons and support mature neurons//Wrap around neurons and form an insulation to prevent interference from other electrical signals//Release chemicals to neurons throughout the brain
Neurons: nerve cells with two specialized extensions//one extension is for receiving electrical signals, called dendrites//other longer extension is for transmitting electrical signals to other cells, called axons//are in the brain and throughout the body//communicate through chemical messages in the space between the neurons called synapses

Question 15

Know the terms axon, dendrite, myelin and synapse

Answer 15

NEURONS
Axon: the other, longer extension is for transmitting electrical signals to other cells
Dendrite: one extension is for receiving electrical signals
Myelin: a fatty material that wraps around and insulates an axon//normal breaks in the myelin along the axon help to speed the signals along the length of the axon//prevents interference from other electrical signals
Synapse: “End bulbs” located at extreme ends of the axon’s branches where chemical messages called neurotransmitters are stored
SYNAPSE = Infinitely small space (20-30 billionths of a meter)//When neurotransmitters enter the synapse they carry the chemical messages that excite or inhibit nearby nerve cells

Question 16

What is the difference between the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system?

Answer 16

Central nervous system (CNS): Made of nerve cells located in the brain and spinal cord//When these nerve cells are damaged there is a very limited ability for re-growth or repair//Causes problems with motor coordination, strength and sensation//May be permanent disability in the person’s function to walk, talk, feel sensations, etc
Made up of nerve cells located throughout the body, not in the brain or spinal cord
Peripheral: “away from the center”//These axons and dendrites come from the spinal cord and are held together by connective tissue//Carry signals from the senses, skin, muscles, and organs to the spinal cord and back again//Nerve cells in the peripheral nervous system have the ability to re-grow or reattach if severed or damaged//Ex: a severed limb can re-grow nerves that communicate with the brain

Question 17

If injured, what chance is there for recovery for central vs peripheral nerves?

Answer 17

Central: very limited ability for re-growth or repair//Causes problems with motor coordination, strength and sensation//May be permanent disability in the person’s function to walk, talk, feel sensations, etc
Peripheral: /Nerve cells in the peripheral nervous system have the ability to re-grow or reattach if severed or damaged//Ex: a severed limb can re-grow nerves that communicate with the brain

Question 18

Describe the process of action potentials and how nerve cells transmit signals

Answer 18

Axons act as chemical gates//open to allow electrically charged particles called ions to enter or close to keep them out//fluid in the axon contains several different ions such as sodium, potassium, chloride and protein//some are positively charged, some are negative//axon membrane keeps the positively charged ions and the negatively charged ions apart//means that there is a “charge” or “potential” for the ions to move across the membrane//RESTING STATE=Axon’s charge or potential makes it like a charged battery, ready to give up energy// Positively charged sodium is outside the axon membrane and negatively charged protein is inside the axon’s membrane//Safeguards are present to keep the charged ions separate//Most important is the sodium pump// transport process that picks up any sodium ions that get inside the axon’s fluid and returns them back outside//keeping the axon charged//EXCITED NERVE CELL=Touch a hot stove and the chemical signals from the skin excite the nerve cell//causes the sodium pump to stop momentarily and the sodium ions rush inside the axon// tiny electric current is generated when positively charged sodium ions go inside the axon fluid to be with the negatively charged protein//Causes the charge outside the axon to now be negative and the charge inside is positive//Immediately afterward, the sodium pump starts up again and returns the axon to the resting state//Once activated, the action potential repeats at each point along the axon where there is a break in the myelin covering, picks up again at the next myelin break//Continues to the end of the axon where it reaches the end bulb and triggers the release of neurotransmitters

Question 19

What are neurotransmitters and how do they work?

Answer 19

These chemicals enter the synapse and either inhibit or excite the function of neighboring nerve cells in the brain, organs, muscles or other cells//Excitatory transmitters open chemical locks and turn on nerve cells//Inhibitory transmitters block chemical locks and turn off nerve cells

Question 20

Explain how drugs can interfere with neurotransmitters

Answer 20

Alcohol affects the brain by imitating GABA//Alcohol molecules so closely resemble those of GABA that alcohol can open these receptors//When GABA-neurons are excited, they decrease neural activity//means the brain doesn’t work as well-loss of coordination and judgment, decreased self-control, lower inhibitions, etc

Cocaine blocks reuptake of dopamine from the synapse//Extra dopamine is usually removed from the synaptic space and transported back into the end bulbs//cocaine keeps the extra from being removed so it stays in the synapse longer

Question 21

How do reflex nerve responses work?

Answer 21

Sometimes immediate action is needed
Ex, touch a hot stove: Sensory nerves in the skin called afferent neurons send a signal to the spinal cord//Afferent neurons have dendrites 2-3 feet long to reach from tips of fingers to the spinal cord//Spinal cord transmits to an interneuron//Interneuron transmits to the brain to register pain//also transmits to the efferent neuron//Axons of efferent neurons are 2-3 feet long to reach muscles and causes you to withdraw your hand quickly, this is a reflex

Question 22

Describe thresholds for stimuli

Answer 22

Threshold of perception: apoint above which a stimulus is perceived and below which it isn’t//Ex: sounds or voices in the background of an audio tape aren’t loud enough to catch a person’s attention
Absolute Threshold: The intensity level of a stimulus such that a person will have a 50% chance of detecting it

Subliminal Stimulus: a stimulus with levels below a person’s absolute threshold//the person is not consciously aware of the stimulus//Whether subliminal stimuli can attract the brain’s attention on a subconscious level has been a longstanding controversy //Ex: word “popcorn” flashed on a movie screen at the theater, but it doesn’t stay up long enough for moviegoers to read it. Does it register in the brain and influence people to buy popcorn?

Question 23

What is the difference between sensations and perceptions?

Answer 23

Sensations: Senses pick up a stimuli such as an image//Sensory receptors produce electrical signals that are transformed by the brain into meaningless bits of information
Perceptions: The experience we have after our brain assembles and combines thousands of individual sensations into a meaningful pattern or image

Question 24

How do sensations change into perceptions?

Answer 24

1. Stimulus is a change in the environment (light waves, sounds, etc)
2. Transduction, which is the change of physical energy into electrical signals that travel to the brain//Ex: Light hits the retina in the eye and is changed into electrical signals
3. Brain receives impulses from senses and reach the primary areas//Ex: Impulses from ear go to the temporal lobe
4. Sensation impulses are sent to the association area in the brain//Meaningless bits of sensation are changes into images that we perceive as meaningful
5. Personalized perceptions are automatically added by the brain//Ex: Previously frightened by a spider leads to perception that all spiders are bad

Question 25

Describe top-down and bottom-up perceptual organization

Answer 25

Top-Down: we use past experiences to interpret when we see/hear/feel//when I see my neighbor (sensory input), I can predict what our meeting might be like (perception of friendliness)
Bottom-Up: When there isn’t previous knowledge about whatever sensory input is there//Occurs when perception begins with bits and pieces of information that, when combined, lead to perception of a whole pattern//Ex: Child sees a new toy and he needs to collect sensory info about it from touching, tasting or hearing it

Question 26

Be familiar with Gestalt organizational rules

Answer 26

Gestalt rules say that in organizing stimuli we tend to automatically distinguish between a figure and background
The figure with more detail stands out against the background which has less detail

Question 27

Explain perceptual constancy

Answer 27

We perceive that size, shape, brightness, and color of objects remain the same as they change shape or move

Size constancy: We perceive objects as remaining the same size even when their images on the retina are continually growing or shrinking//A car drives away but it doesn’t seem to become smaller as it goes further in the distance
Shape constancy: We perceive an object as retaining the same shape, even when we view it from different angle//A book seen in different positions is still rectangular

Question 28

How do we perceive depth or distance?

Answer 28

Eyes and brain add a 3rd dimension to all visual perceptions//The image sent to the retina are only seen as 2 dimensional (example: height and width of an object)//Cues for depth perception are by using both eyes together (binocular cues) or one eye alone (monocular cues)

Question 29

What is known about subliminal perceptions or ESP?

Answer 29

Subliminal Perceptions: Subjects were shown a series of rapidly changing patterns in one eye and a photograph of a person in the other eye//Photos were either a realistic scene or a picture of something not quite right//Subjects reported seeing the not-quite-right images in less time//Suggests the unconscious mind registered the differences
Researchers tried this: Subjects were given an audio tape labeled either “improve self-esteem” or “improve memory”//After listening to subliminal messages on the tapes for several weeks, subjects reported improvements in either self-esteem or memory// the titles of the tapes did not always match the actual messages on the tapes//Means that they might have listened to messages about memory but thought they heard messages about self-esteem//Subjects’ beliefs influenced the results
ESP: a group of psychic experiences that involve perceiving or sending information outside normal sensory processes including://Telepathy: ability to transfer one’s thoughts to another or to read the thoughts of others//Precognition: ability to foretell events that will happen in the future//Clairvoyance: ability to perceive events happening elsewhere out of sight//Psychokinesis: moving objects, bending spoons

Question 30

What is an illusion and how does it occur?

Answer 30

Illusions are a perceptual experience in which you perceive an image as being strangely distorted
Illusions show us that when proven perceptual cues are changed or manipulated, our reliable perceptual system can be deceived//implies that perception is a very active process

Question 31

What is the phi movement?

Answer 31

Phi movement: The illusion that lights that are actually stationary appear to be moving//A string of lights that flash one at a time in a sequence look like they move (think of blinking lights on a sign)

Question 32

What are the different levels of consciousness?

Answer 32

Controlled processes: Require full awareness, alertness, and concentration to do a task, for example conversation with a friend
Automatic processes: Minimal attention, doesn’t interfere with other ongoing activities, for example eating or watching TV
Daydreaming: Low level of awareness, often occurs during automatic processes and involves fantasizing or dreaming while awake
Altered states (meditation and hypnosis)
Sleep: Consists of five stages that involve different levels of responsiveness and physiological arousal//Deepest state of sleep borders on unconsciousness
Dreaming: Unique state of consciousness in which we’re asleep but experience visual, auditory, and tactile images
Unconsciousness: Physical change in awareness & alertness
Can result from disease, a blow to the head, general medical anesthesia, fainting or coma
Complete loss of responsiveness to the environment

Question 33

Describe the biologic clocks and the suprachiasmatic nucleus

Answer 33

Biological clocks are the body’s way of regulating physiological responses//All animals including humans have biological clocks//Some biological clock processes are set for a day, others for a longer time such as a month//Ex: bears hibernate, hormone cycles//biological clocks are groupings of cells in different locations throughout the body//”master clock” in the brain coordinates all the body clocks so that they are in sync
Suprachiasmatic nucleus: Part of the hypothalamus//Located in the middle of the brain//Regulates a number of the body’s rhythms//Regulates sleep-wake cycle//Highly responsive to change in light

Question 34

How do we reset the sleep biologic clock?

Answer 34

Circadian rhythm means a genetically programmed biologic clock set for the processes that occur dailySleep/wake circadian day is 24 hours + 18 minutesThose extra 18 minutes can cause problems

Must be reset daily to fit the 24-hour day
The resetting stimulus is morning sunlight hitting the retina of the eye

Light therapy: If you can’t be in the morning sunlight this helps//Use of bright artificial light, especially in the winter
Melatonin: Hormone secreted by the pineal gland in the brain//Melatonin secretion increases with darkness and decreases with light//As melatonin levels rise you feel less alert//Good reason to sleep in the dark, turn off nightlights and computer screens//Suprachiasmatic nucleus regulates the secretion of melatonin

Question 35

Describe the stages of sleep

Alpha stage

(Non-REM)
Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3+4

REM

Answer 35

Alpha stage: Feeling of being relaxed and drowsy//Relaxation when eyes are closed, not yet asleep//Brain waves are slower with less reactivity//Next you pass into non-REM sleep
Stage 1: lightest stage of sleep//Transition from wakefulness to sleep//Usually lasts 7 minutes or less//Lose responsiveness to stimuli//
Drifting thoughts and images//Slower brain waves called theta waves
Stage 2 sleep: Beginning of what we know as sleep//High-frequency bursts of brain activity called sleep spindles are seen on an EEG that measures electrical patterns in the brain//The more your brain makes sleep spindles, the less likely you will wake when exposed to noise//Muscle tension, body temperature, and heart rate gradually decrease
Stages 3+4: Brain waves change to slower patterns called delta waves//Stage 4 considered the deepest stage of sleep, most difficult to be awakened
Heart rate, respiration, temperature, and blood flow to the brain are reduced//Marked secretion of growth hormone//Controls physical growth and brain development
REM: “paradoxical sleep” because there is a higher physiologic activity and an inability to move//Heart rate+blood pressure higher than non-REM //Brain waves are similar to pattern of being awake//muscles in neck, arm and legs are paralyzed//Dreaming//occurs about five or six times per night//You spend more time in REM sleep if you’re sleep-deprived on previous nights

Question 36

How much sleep do we need and why do we need to sleep? What is the master sleep switch?

Answer 36

Adults sleep an average of 8 hours per night
Adolescents need about 9 hours per night
Repair theory: Activities during the day deplete key factors in brain/body and sleep replenishes them
Growth hormone increases during sleep
Immune cell function increases during sleep
Glycogen energy stores build up during sleep
Adaptive theory: Sleep evolved at night because it prevented early humans from exposing themselves to the dangers of nocturnal predators
Master sleep switch: VPLO (ventrolateral preoptic nucleus): group of cells in the hypothalamus//When switched on VPLO secretes a neurotransmitter (GABA) that turns off areas that keep the brain awake//when switched off the VPLO activates areas that help you wake and be alert//Ex: reticular formation in the forebrain alerts the rest of the brain to receive info from all the senses, activated when VPLO is off

Question 37

Explain theories of dreaming and what we dream about

(Typical Dreams)
Several characters
Often involve motion such as running
Setting is indoors more often than outside
Visual sensation, but rarely sensations of taste, smell, or pain
Flying or falling without injury
May be recurrent (dreams of being threatened, pursued, or trying to hide)
Emotions of anxiety and fear instead of joy

Answer 37

Freudian theory: Dreams are the way the mind protects us from unconscious desires and wishes//Desires and wishes, especially aggressive ones, are hidden from consciousness to protect the person’s self-esteem and ability to function in society with other people//These wishes are disguised as symbols in dreams//Carefully becoming aware of these unconscious thoughts requires interpreting the symbols in the dreams and this is the psychoanalyst’s job
Extensions of waking life theory: Dreams reflect the same thoughts, concerns, and emotions that we have when awake//Dreams are the brain’s way of processing the day’s problems and feelings
Activation-synthesis theory: Dreaming occurs because brain areas that provide rational thought while awake are shut down//Executive functions in the frontal lobes are quieted//areas involved in emotions and visual experiences are more active while asleep//Results in hallucinations, emotions, and bizarre thought patterns that we call dreams

Question 38

Identify sleep problems

Answer 38

Insomnia: Difficulties in either going to sleep or staying asleep through the night//Associated with daytime complaints//Fatigue//Impaired concentration//Memory difficulty//General lack of well-being
Sleep apnea: Repeated periods during sleep when a person stops breathing for 10 seconds or longer before catching a breath again//Often results in snoring as breathing resumes//Results in insomnia, exhaustion during the day
Narcolepsy: Form of sleep attacks or short periods of sleep throughout the day, suddenly fall asleep without intent//Accompanied by brief periods of REM sleep and loss of muscle control//Can be triggered by emotions or stress
Night terrors: Occur in sleep stage 3 or 4//Frightening experiences that often start with a piercing scream, followed by sudden awakening in a fearful state with rapid breathing and increased heart rate//Usually no memory of the experience in the morning
Nightmares: Occur during REM sleep//Frightening and anxiety-producing images occur involving great danger//Upon awakening, the person can describe nightmare in great detail
Sleepwalking: Occurs in sleep stage 3 or 4//Sleeper gets up and walks while literally sound asleep//Has poor coordination//Clumsy but can avoid objects//Can engage in limited conversation//No memory of sleepwalking the next day//Obviously this is dangerous

Question 39

What are good lifestyle habits regarding sleep?

Answer 39

Go to bed at about the same time each night//Put lights out immediately//Don’t read or watch TV in bed//If not asleep in 20 minutes, get out of bed and relax in another room until tired again (but no TV or lights)//Set alarm for same time each morning and get up//Get exposure to sunlight or bright light in the mornings//Don’t nap during the day//No alcohol or caffeine in the evening//Include exercise early in the day (not close to bedtime)

Question 40

What is the difference between sensory memory, short-term and long-term memories?

Answer 40

Sensory: Information from our senses about our surroundings & environment is sent to sensory memory
Short-Term: If you pay attention to the info, it is transferred here
Long-Term: From short-term memory, info that you mentally process is sent here

Question 41

Define iconic and echoic sensory memory

Answer 41

Iconic: Form of sensory memory that automatically holds visual information for 1-2 seconds//As soon as you shift your attention, the information disappears
Echoic: Form of sensory memory that holds auditory information for 1-2 seconds//Holds sounds long enough to recognize that certain sounds form words or have other meaning//Someone says, “What did you say?” but can immediately repeat your words– the sounds are still in echoic memory

Question 42

How long is info held in short-term memory?

Answer 42

Held for only 2 to 30 seconds

Question 43

What affects encoding in short-term memory?

Answer 43

Info is held longer in short-term memory if it is repeated//Called maintenance rehearsal//when you repeat a phone number or a list of items to keep it fresh in memory
New info coming into short-term memory can prevent info already there from being processed//Called interference//Ex: try to repeat a list of names while someone talks to you about a different topic

Question 44

What is chunking?

Answer 44

Chunking (one of the techniques used by memory athletes)
Combining separate items of information into a larger unit or chunk of info, then remember the chunks
Example: divide a phone number into parts: area code + first 3 numbers + last 4 numbers

Question 45

Describe the serial position effect

Answer 45

Serial position effect: Try to repeat a long list of words or numbers– you’ll remember best the ones at the beginning and the end
Primacy effect= more retention of info at the beginning of the list//The first information is being encoded and stored into long-term memory, more rehearsal time than information later in the list
Recency effect= more retention of info at the end
Information is still in short-term memory at the time of recall

Question 46

What are the types of long-term memory?

Answer 46

Declarative memory
(1) Semantic memory is knowledge of facts, words or definitions that you have learned//Ex: what is the capital of the state where you were born?
(2) Episodic memory is knowledge of specific events and personal experiences//Ex: what is your favorite song?
You are aware of how you know these things, which is different than the nondeclaritive memory
Nondeclarative or procedural memory: Memory for motor skills such as riding a bike//Cognitive skills such as learning to read//Emotional behaviors learned through classical conditioning such as fear of spiders//This is a form of implicit memory, meaning that you don’t actively search your memory for how to do these things//Ex: even if you haven’t ridden a bike in years, you’d likely remember how to do it now

Question 47

What type of encoding into long-term memory is best for retention of the information?

Answer 47

Highly charged emotional events are remembered better//Ex: do you remember where you were when you heard about the 9/11 attacks?//Ex: do the happy details stand out about the day you graduated high school or your wedding day?
Hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine enhance formation of emotional memories//These hormones create tiny molecular changes that help brain cells form memories

Question 48

How accurate are long-term memories?

Answer 48

Numerous studies show that a false suggestion can grow into a vivid, detailed personal memory//This can happen when a therapist is trying to recover a repressed memory//Also can happen when a person is telling emotionally charged personal info to a well-meaning listener//How questions are worded or what suggestions are given can implant a false memory//Memories are altered slightly every time we retrieve them from long-term storage//Memories are affected by our current emotions and current understanding of the past situation

Question 49

How are operant and classical conditioning different?

Answer 49

Operant conditioning: Increase or decrease the rate of some response//The response must be a voluntary behavior//These behaviors don’t necessarily occur naturally//Reinforcer or punisher immediately follow the desired response
Classical conditioning: Creates a new response to a neutral stimulus//The response is involuntary and automatic such as salivation at the sight of food, eye blink or emotions

Question 50

Describe positive and negative reinforcers and punishers

Answer 50

Positive reinforcer: Adding something pleasant
Negative reinforcer: Removing something unpleasant

Positive punishers: Adding something unpleasant
Negative punishers: Removal of something pleasant

Question 51

What kinds of problems can come from reliance on punishments for learning?

Answer 51

Immediately stop undesired behavior//Do not produce long-term compliance//Teach what NOT to do, but doesn’t teach the desired behavior//May increase aggression in child//Especially with positive punishers such as spanking or hitting//Parent is modeling aggression by hitting//May harm relationship between child and parent//Child is confused by parent who says he loves but causes pain, child wants to avoid that parent//Decreases self-esteem and feelings of worth

Question 52

What is important about immediate reinforcement, continuous reinforcement and intermittent reinforcement?

Answer 52

Immediate Reinforcement: Reinforcer should follow immediately after the desired behavior//If reinforcer is delayed, the animal may be reinforced for some undesired or unintended behavior//Superstitious behaviors start this way too//Behavior is accidentally paired with a reinforcer//If you score a home run today while you’re wearing your favorite red shirt, you may conclude that the red shirt is lucky
Continuous Reinforcement: Each and every time the desired behavior occurs, the reinforcer is given//Usually needed when the behavior is new
Intermittent Reinforcement: Reinforcement is given only some of the time//This can be every other time the desired behavior occurs, every 3rd time, or some unpredictable amount of time before the reinforcer is given//Think of a slot-machine, you get the payoff every once in a while but you still drop in coins– not clear when you’ll get a jackpot so you keep doing it//Helps to maintain the learned behavior or make a habit

Question 53

Describe cognitive learning and Bandura’s studies on learned aggression and learning vs performance

Answer 53

Cognitive Learning: Also called vicarious learning//We learn by watching, imitating, and modeling others//Does not require any reward or punisher to learn a behavior //Can apply to thoughts, understanding or emotions, not just behaviors
Learned Aggression: Bobo Doll Experiment//Watch an adult behave aggressively with the doll//Only children who watched the aggressive adult imitated those behaviors
Learning vs Performance: Variation on the first Bobo Doll: watch an adult receiving varying consequences for hitting the doll//Children imitated the behavior that was rewarded, but not the behaviors that were punished//This happens when children learn bad words from parents but choose not to say them

Question 54

What is imprinting and biological prepared learning?

Answer 54

Imprinting: seen in newly hatched birds when they encounter certain stimuli in their environment//They automatically follow the first moving object they see, increases chances of survival//There is a critical or sensitive period during which this learning is most likely to occur//Imprinting won’t occur when the bird is several weeks old
Biological Prepared Learning: in animals and people there is prepared learning//This is a tendency to recognize, attend to and store certain cues over others//Ex: babies are biologically prepared or “prewired” to learn language

Question 55

What is imprinting and biological prepared learning?

Answer 55

Imprinting: seen in newly hatched birds when they encounter certain stimuli in their environment//They automatically follow the first moving object they see, increases chances of survival//There is a critical or sensitive period during which this learning is most likely to occur//Imprinting won’t occur when the bird is several weeks old
Biological Prepared Learning: in animals and people there is prepared learning//This is a tendency to recognize, attend to and store certain cues over others//Ex: babies are biologically prepared or “prewired” to learn language

Question 56

Describe Freud’s theory, division of the mind and stages of psychosexual development

Answer 56

Freud’s psychodynamic theory//Emphasis on: Importance of early childhood experiences//Unconscious or repressed thoughts that we can’t voluntarily access//Conflicts between conscious and unconscious forces that influence our feelings, thoughts and behaviors
Division of the Mind: continuous battle between conscious thoughts and unconscious forces//These battles are fought by the different parts or divisions of the mind//Id(Largest portion of the mind//Unconscious, present at birth//Contains libido which means a drive for physical pleasure/comfort, includes biological drives to release tension), ego(Conscious, rational part of mind
Develops in first 2-3 years of life//Find a way to satisfy id impulses) & superego(This forms the “conscience” of right vs wrong//Develops from interactions with caregivers//Develops about age 5 years//This is when Freud said personality is completely formed)//Each has a different function and goal//Freud imagined these divisions of the mind as residing in both the conscious and unconscious
Stages of Psychosexual Development:
Oral– feeding/sucking relieves hunger and soothes
Anal– tension is relieved by elimination
Phallic– child discovers pleasurable sensations in the genitals
Latency– child focuses on developing intellectual and social skills
Genital– sexual desires and pursuit of relationships
Moving through the childhood stages successfully will require parenting in a way that is not too strict (overwhelms the child) or too lenient (doesn’t require conflicts to be dealt with)

Question 57

How is the unconscious accessed according to Freud?

Answer 57

Free association: Talk about any thoughts or images that occur at random, whatever pops into the mind//Assumption is this uncensored talking will provide clues to unconscious material
Dream interpretation: Based on the idea that dreams contain hidden meanings and symbols that are clues to unconscious thoughts and desires
Freudian slips: Mistakes in speech or “slips of the tongue” that show unconscious thoughts or wishes

Question 58

Describe defense mechanisms of the ego

Answer 58

Rationalization: Covering up the true reasons for actions, thoughts or feelings by making up excuses and explanations
I didn’t call my friend because I’m at work (really it’s because I’m mad)
Denial: Refusing to recognize some anxiety-provoking event or piece of information even if it is clear to others
You know it’s important to get medical check-ups but you just don’t make the time (really you don’t want to get on the scale to see your weight)
Repression:Blocking awareness and pushing unacceptable or threatening feelings, wishes or experiences into the unconscious//Don’t acknowledge feelings of jealousy, tell yourself it’s fine if your ex dates your friend
Projection: Falsely attributing your own unacceptable feelings, traits or thoughts to others//Accusing someone else of anger when it’s really you who is angry
Reaction formation: Substituting behaviors, thoughts or feelings that are the direct opposite of unacceptable ones//Join an equal rights club when you’re really prejudice
Displacement: Transferring negative feelings to another person or object that’s less threatening//Yell at the dog when it’s really your spouse you’re angry at
Sublimation: Type of displacement that involves redirecting a threatening or forbidden desire, usually sexual, into a socially acceptable one
Take up sports to channel your aggressive feelings

Question 59

What is “fixation” in Freud’s theory?

Answer 59

During the first 3 stages (oral, anal or phallic) a person can fail to successfully move through the stages//This is called fixation at the stage where the conflict does not resolve because the id’s wishes were either over- or under-gratified//Produces personality problems and symptoms//Ex: fixated at the oral stage -> adult continues to get gratification in oral activities such as overeating or smoking//Oral activities can be symbolic as well, such as being overly demanding or “mouthing off”
Fixated at the anal stage: Results in adults who engage in activities of retention or elimination//Retention-very neat, stingy or behaviorally rigid//Elimination: messy or very carefree
Fixated at the phallic stage: Results in lack of identity with the same sex parent//Phallic stage involves the Oedipus complex//Attraction to the opposite sex parent which leads to fears of the same sex parent’s anger, resolved when the boy identifies with father or the girl identifies with mom (for females, it’s called Electra complex)

Question 60

Explain critics’ objections to psychodynamic theory

Answer 60

Carl Jung: devoted follower of Freud until 1914
Split with Freud over the emphasis on sex drive
Believed the “collective unconscious”, not libido or sex drive, to be the basic force in the development of personality//“Collective unconscious” means ancient memories and symbols are passed on by birth and shared by all peoples in all cultures, similar to instincts in animals
Alfred Adler: Contemporary of Freud, disagreed that humans are governed by biological and sexual urges
Our actions and personality are not governed by tension vs relief of biological urges//Proposed that humans are motivated by social urges//His theory became known as “individual psychology”//says we are aware of our motives and goals and have the capacity to guide and plan our own futures//His theory of personality is called analytical psychology
Karen Horney : Trained as a psychoanalyst using Freud’s theory//Objected to Freud’s view of women being dependent, vain and submissive because of biological forces and childhood sexual experiences//She took issue with Freud’s idea that girls have a female version of the Oedipus complex //Freud said girls develop penis envy, wishing they had male genitals and resolve this “imperfection” by identifying with mom//Horney thought child-parent social interactions were far more important influences than biology

Question 61

What are humanistic theories of Maslow & Rogers

Answer 61

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:Needs for growth are arranged in order of importance//Biological needs have to be met first (safety, food, warmth, etc)//Social and personal needs then can be met//Self-actualization means the fulfillment of the person’s unique potential

Roger’s Self Theory: Personality development is guided by each person’s unique drive for self-actualization and improvement//We all have an inborn tendency to develop our capabilities to live a full life//Part of this drive comes from comparison of our “real self” with our “ideal self”//Real self is based on experiences and how we see ourselves in the present//Ideal self is how we would like to see ourselves in the future//The difference pushes us to develop for the good//Growth is enhanced by positive regard from others

Question 62

What are projective tests and how do they assess personality?

Answer 62

Projective tests: psychological tools that measure various characteristics, traits or abilities to understand a person’s behaviors and their style of relating to the world//Help to predict how a person might behave in the future//Help to identify personality problems and psychological disorders that need treatment//Ex. of projective tests are Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and Rorschach Ink Blot Test//Require individuals to look at a meaningless object or ambiguous picture and describe what they see or create a story about the image//Assumption is that individuals “project” their conscious and unconscious feelings, needs and motives into the images to make sense of them//TAT gives a series of pictures of people in ambiguous situations, ask what the people are doing or thinking//Rorschach gives a series of ink blots, ask what each might be