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The Earth System > FINAL > Flashcards

FINAL Flashcards

1
Q

Earthquakes

A

ground shaking caused when the pressure in the earth is stronger than the rock, which breaks it at a fault

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2
Q

Fault

A

fracture in earth’s surface on which sliding occurs, most are at an angle

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3
Q

“stick-slip”

A

when a fault overcomes the friction between them

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4
Q

focus/hypocenter

A

pointy at which original rupture occurs and energy is released during an earthquake

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5
Q

epicenter

A

point on earth’s surface directly above focus

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6
Q

3 types of waves

A

come in this order: P, S, surface
P- Primary, fastest, can move through any medium
S- Secondary, can only move through solid

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7
Q

seismograph

A

measures ground motion from an earth quake, uses 3, 1 vertical and 2 horizontal

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8
Q

how to find epicenter

A

time lag between types of waves increases the farther away you are

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9
Q

Mercalli intensity scale

A

defines intensity by AMOUNT OF DAMAGE, on a scale from I to XII

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10
Q

Richter magnitude scale

A

based on amount of GROUND MOTION, on a scale from 1-9 ish, logarithmic so every value is 10x more powerful

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11
Q

Raleigh waves

A

pass like waves, (arrows pointing in 2 directions)

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12
Q

Love waves

A

waves move laterally, (towards each other)

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13
Q

Damage due to ground motion depends on…

A
  1. closeness to epicenter
  2. underlying ground being solid or soft
  3. building construction
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14
Q

Landslides / Avalanches

A

ground on steep slope gives way and tumbles downhill

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15
Q

Sediment liquefaction

A

sediment containing poe water becomes a slurry, can create sand volcanoes

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16
Q

Fires (damage due to earthquakes)

A

spread from lamps and broken gas lines

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17
Q

What can cause a tsunami?

A

submarine fault, landslide, volcano

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18
Q

Deep water tsunami

A

height is 1/2 a meter, but WHOLE BODY of ocean is moving, lots of energy, very fast

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19
Q

Shallow water tsunami

A

piles up due to friction, gets up to 10 meters high (30 feet)

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20
Q

megatsunami

A

10 to 20 times bigger

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21
Q

tsunami prediction

A

seismograph records earthquake, sensors pick up speed of water, warning issued.

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22
Q

tsunami runup

A

size of tsunami wave when it gets to shore, unpredictable by tsunami warning system

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23
Q

steps to minimize damage

A
  1. avoid runup areas
  2. evacuation plan
  3. avoid new development in high risk areas
  4. design construction to minimize damage
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24
Q

Earthquakes at divergent boundaries

A

not very dangerous, shallow focus

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25
Q

earthquakes at Transform boundaries

A

between shallow and deep, could be minor or major

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26
Q

locked fault

A

section of fault where its stuck, so stress is spread out over more fault

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27
Q

earthquakes at convergent boundaries

A

subduction zones, deep - shallow focus, could be minor or major

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28
Q

Benioff-Wadati zone

A

subduction zone where plate is forced under

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29
Q

intraplate earthquakes

A
  1. Collision zone
  2. ancient weak fracture zones
  3. extensions of mid ocean fracture zones
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30
Q

Collision zones

A

convergent zone where neither plate goes down

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31
Q

Ancient weak fracture zones

A

many are failed rift valleys,

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32
Q

fracture zones

A

created as transform faults between segments of spreading ridges

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33
Q

induced earthquakes are due to

A
  1. changing stress field

2. increasing pore pressure underwater

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34
Q

examples of induced earthquakes

A
  1. reservoirs
  2. withdrawal of oil or water
  3. rockbursts
  4. underground nuclear testing
  5. deep well injection
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35
Q

predicting an earthquake

A
  1. identify seismic zones, or clusters of epicenters

2. identify seismic gaps, a gap of years where an active fault has not shaken

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36
Q

foreshocks

A

lil earthquakes before a big one

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37
Q

Earthquake warning system

A

Japan uses it, measures P waves and sends out an alert, slows bullet train and turns off gas lines.

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38
Q

Differential stresses

A
  1. compression (squeezing)
  2. tension (stretching)
  3. shear (twisting)
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39
Q

Deformation

A

small scale, foliation and joints

large scale, folds and faults

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40
Q

Kinds of deformation

A
  1. brittle - material breaks

2. ductile - material changes shape

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41
Q

Behavior of crust depends on…..

A
  1. composition
  2. rate - fast=brittle
  3. temp - higher temp=more ductile
  4. pressure - higher pressure=more ductile
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42
Q

hanging wall v. foot wall

A

hanging wall hangs over and foot wall is under

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43
Q

strike

A

angle bw horizontal line and true north measuring a fault

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44
Q

dip

A

angle b/w horizontal and steepest slope (gives slope)

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45
Q

dip slip

A

sliding up or down in dip direction

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46
Q

strike slip

A

sliding horizontally

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47
Q

oblique slip

A

has components of both strike slip and dip slip

48
Q

normal faults

A

hanging wall moves DOWN, due to extensional forces, CRUST LENGTHENS, Basin range in US (dip slip)

49
Q

reverse and thrust faults

A

hanging wall moves UP, due to compressional forces, CRUST SHORTENS, reverse is greater than 35 degrees and thrust is less - Himalayas (dip slip)

50
Q

strike slip faults

A

due to shear force, transform plates

51
Q

slicken slides

A

rocks along a fault rub against each other and make each other smooth and groovy

52
Q

Folds

A

caused by compressional forces

53
Q

Anticline

A

fold where center bows up

54
Q

syncline

A

fold where center bows down

55
Q

Hinge

A

largest curvature in a series of folds

56
Q

plunging anticline or syncline

A

happens when hinge is not horizontal

57
Q

Istostacy

A

describes buoyancy of lithospheric plates

58
Q

Archimedes principle

A

floating thing in water - mass of water displaced is mass of object

59
Q

Rules of istostacy

A
  1. thicker lithosphere rises higher
  2. less dense lithosphere rises higher
  3. loading it causes it to sink and vice versa
60
Q

isostatic compensation

A

places that are still moving up or down

61
Q

fossil fuels

A

altered remains of previously existing plants and animals, stored solar energy

62
Q

3 steps of making coal

A
  1. organic matter is buried in oxygen-poor environment
  2. compaction and partial decay
  3. deep burial drives off everything but carbon
63
Q

grades of coal

A

lowest: lignite (70%)
bituminous (85%)
highest: anthracite (95%)

64
Q

Strip mining

A

shallow seams, overburden removed and coal is taken out, ruins top soil

65
Q

underground mining

A

tunnels dug, dangerous bc of collapse, explosions, or black lung disease

66
Q

oil and natural gas

A

hydrocarbons, the longer the hydrocarbon the more viscous

67
Q

4 steps of making oil or gas

A
  1. plankton and algae die and end up in oxygen poor environment
  2. lithtification to black organic shale
  3. burial
  4. increase of Temp and pressure
68
Q

Requirements for a rock to become oil

A
  1. high porosity
  2. high permeability
  3. trapping mechanism
69
Q

Oil traps need

A
  1. Seal Rock

2. Oil trap geometry

70
Q

Peak Oil

A

the rate of petroleum production over time follows a bell curve, depends on discovery rate, production rate, and total production.

71
Q

M. King Hubbert

A

Predicted US oil production would peak in 1970

72
Q

Consequences of peak oil

A

Second half of oil is difficult to get to, more accidents, might take more energy to get to than it’s worth

73
Q

Methane hydrate

A

Frozen methane and water which becomes natural gas

74
Q

Hydraulic fracturing

A

injection of high pressure solutions into permeable rocks to extract natural gas

75
Q

Consequences of fracking

A
  1. Construction of drill
  2. Water consumption
  3. Groundwater contamination
  4. Flowback, or chemicals coming back up w natural gas
76
Q

Mass movement

A

gravity-caused transport of material

77
Q

Angle of repose

A

steepest slope a pile of sediment can have and remain stable, increases with grain SIZE and grain ANGULARITY

78
Q

factors affecting likelihood of mass movement

A
  1. vibration
  2. presence of water
  3. vegetation
79
Q

Creep

A

gradual movement, normally due to freeze and thaw cycles

80
Q

Slump

A

block of material comes off in spoon-shaped glide horizon

81
Q

mud flow

A

water mixed with sediment, can move up to 100 miles an how. If sediment pieces are large enough its called debris flow

82
Q

avalanche

A

air and debris traveling up to 250 mph

83
Q

landslide

A

bedrock detaches from slope and SPEEDS downhill, if it falls in a body of water it can create a megatsunami.

84
Q

Rockfall

A

rocks falling from a cliff

85
Q

Ways to combat mass movement

A
  1. retaining wall
  2. avalanche shed
  3. rock bolts
  4. terracing
  5. revegetation
  6. relocate water flow
  7. lower water table
  8. rip raps absorb energy along coasts
86
Q

submarine slump

A

blocks that fall off underwater

87
Q

submarine debris flow

A

larger clasts and mud matrix

88
Q

turbidity current

A

sediment in water that moves really fast and is caused by earthquakes sometimes

89
Q

wave refraction

A

part of wave is closer to shore, energy is focused on headlands, and it straightens out the coastline. ALSO, means it transports sand in the direction of the refraction.

90
Q

longshore drift

A

Movement of sand by wave refraction, methods put into place to keep it from affecting the shape and position of shore

91
Q

groins and jetties

A

methods put in place to stop longshore drift, sand piles up on one side and erodes on other side

92
Q

undertow

A

wind pushes water to shore, water flows out underneath

93
Q

rip current

A

when undertow is focused to a certain spot bc of reefs or sand bars, creates STRONG undertow

94
Q

fringing reef

A

forms around volcanic island

95
Q

barrier reef

A

reef circling lagoon, w small island

96
Q

atoll

A

remnant of volcano left above sea level

97
Q

emergent coasts

A

sea level drop, caused by glacial period normally, can happen in interglacial periods when the ice takes pressure off of a space, and it retaliates upward (ISOSTATIC REBOUND)

98
Q

submergent coasts

A

sea level rise caused by interglacial period, either drowned river valleys or drowned u-shaped valleys, AKA fjords

99
Q

runoff

A

surface water moving downslope

100
Q

Formation of drainage networks

A

SHEETWASH follows weaknesses in ground, erosion causes them to form streams and tributaries

101
Q

dendritic drainage network

A

shaped like branches of a tree, forms where everything is pretty uniform

102
Q

radial drainage network

A

radiate out from central point, often formed around volcanoes

103
Q

annular drainage network

A

in concentric rings, typically over domes

104
Q

rectangular drainage network

A

follows joints in bedrock

105
Q

trellis

A

forms between drainage-resistant ridges

106
Q

watershed

A

drainage network collects water from a region

107
Q

drainage divide

A

separates watersheds

108
Q

how does river change as you move downstream (longitudinal profile)

A
  1. gradient decreases

2. carrying capacity decreases

109
Q

floodplain

A

depositional part of river

110
Q

types of floodplains:

A
  1. braided river

2. meandering

111
Q

oxbow lake

A

loop that’s been cut off from a meander

112
Q

flood frequency graph

A

define major interval flood limits, uses a year scale to define how often a type of flood will happen

113
Q

channelization

A

water forced into a certain spot, increases chance of flood, higher speed of water

114
Q

whitewater

A

fast water caused by steep gradient

115
Q

hydraulics

A

turbulent flow caused by interaction w sides and rocks

116
Q

hole

A

place under waterfall where water circulates

117
Q

keeper

A

a hole with no surface escape direction

The Earth System (1 decks)

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