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VHTM > Final > Flashcards

Final Flashcards

1
Q

What is the composition of meat?

A
  • Water: 75%
  • Protein: 15-20%
  • Fat: 5-40%
  • Carbohydrates: 0%
  • Excellent source of phosphorous, niacin/riboflavin
  • Good source of thiamin, iron
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2
Q

What are the type of proteins in meat?

A
  1. Myofibrillar (myosil; thick filaments, actin; thin filaments)
    - Function: contractile
    - Found in muscle/flesh of meat (sarcoplasm of fibres)
  2. Sarcoplasmic/Chromoproteins (myoglobin; flesh, hemoglobin; blood)
    - Function: transport oxygen
  3. Mitochondrial (enzymes)
    - Function: chemical reactions
  4. Connection (collagen, elastic)
    - Functions: structural, holding muscle to bone
    - Found in connective tissue
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3
Q

What happens when you add heat to the meat proteins?

A
  • Heating causes denaturation of myofibrillar proteins
  • Overheating = overcoagulation = tough meat
  • Proteins shrink due to excessive H bonds, squeeze out water = dry meat
  • Collagen can be hydrolyzed into gelatin by various cooking methods
  • Elastin is not affected by normal cooking procedures
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4
Q

What are the factors of tenderness in meat?

A
  1. Length of aging
    - Rigor mortis = after slaughter, muscles are in contracted state = tough
    - If held under specific period of time under 1-2 C, muscles will loosen
    - Proteolytic enzymes in meat break bonds holding muscles in contracted state
    - If meat is hung during aging, gravity stretches muscles
    - Tenderness increases as aging time increases
  2. Age of animal
    - Amount of connective tissue increases with age of animal
    - Meat from young pork/lamb animals is more tender
  3. Species of meat
    - Beef, pork, and chicken vary in amount of connective tissue/muscle
  4. Specific muscle in animal
    - Exercise makes muscle fibres expand = more connective tissue = larger diameter of muscle fibres = more tough
    - Most tender cut is the tenderloin
  5. Method of cooking
    - Moist heat cooking methods increase tenderness
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5
Q

What is marbling and what does it do?

A
  • Fine white streaks of fat in lean parts of a cut of meat
  • Trace, slight, small, or modest
  • Enhances flavour and juiciness = greater perception of tenderness
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6
Q

What are the beef grades?

A
  • Canada Prime: slightly abundant marbling or higher
  • Canada AAA: small marbling or higher
  • Canada AA: slight marbling but less than small
  • Canada A: trace marbling but less than small
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7
Q

What are the tender cuts of meat?

A

Along vertebrate

  1. Rib steak/roast
    - Rib wholesale cut
    - Rib bone
  2. Wing steak
    - Loin wholesale cut
    - Rib bone
  3. Sirloin steak/roast
    - Sirloin wholesale cut
    - Wedge or hip
  4. T-bone
    - Loin wholesale cut
    - ½ vertebra (small tenderloin piece)
  5. Porterhouse
    - Loin wholesale cut
    - ½ vertebra (bigger tenderloin piece)
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8
Q

What are dry heat cooking methods?

A
  • High temperature (> or = 160 C), short period of time, no water

Methods vary depending on cut:

  • Broiling, frying, pan-broiling, BBQ, deep fat frying = thin cuts (sirloin steak, rib steak)
  • Baking, roasting = thicker cuts (rib roast, sirloin roast)
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9
Q

What are dry heat cooking methods used for?

A

Used for tender cuts of meat

  • Beef: less exercised areas (rib, loin, sirloin wholesale cuts) = less connective tissue = smaller diameter of muscle fibres
  • Pork and lamb: young animals = less connective tissue = small diameter muscle fibres
  • Chicken and fish: little connective tissue, small and short muscle fibres = dry heat methods preserve distinctive flavour
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10
Q

Discuss overcooking in dry heat methods.

A
  • Overcooking occurs more readily with dry heat methods
  • Too high a temperature or too long cooking time
  • Very easy to overcook tender meats
  • Overcooked fish is dry, tough, and have very high concentration of fish flavour
  • Note: coating in flour also provides physical barrier against overcoagulation
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11
Q

Is cooking in the microwave a dry heat method?

A
  • Cooking in microwave is not a dry heat method because water in meat turns into steam
  • Stoves have vent to allow steam to evaporate, microwave does not = moist environment
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12
Q

What are the less tender cuts?

A
  1. Blade steak/roast
    - Chuck wholesale cut
    - Shoulder blade or rib
  2. Round steak/roast
    - Hip wholesale cut
    - Leg bone
  3. Brisket
    - Brisket wholesale cut
    - Boneless
  4. Stewing beef
    - Shank wholesale cut
    - Boneless
  5. Ground beef
    - Chuck (neck) wholesale cut
    - Boneless
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13
Q

What are moist heat cooking methods?

A
  • Low temperatures (< or = 100 C), longer cooking times, use of water
  • Allow hydrolysis of collagen connective tissue protein into gelatin (more tender) = increased tenderness

Methods vary depending on cut:

  • Braising of ribs, steaks, chops = thin cuts (blade steak, round steak)
  • Pot roasting = larger cuts
  • Stewing = small pieces of meat
  • Pressure cooking
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14
Q

What are moist heating cooking methods used for?

A
  • Used for less tender cuts of beef (chuck, shank, brisket, plate, hip, flank wholesale cuts) which received more exercise
  • Veal is from very young male (bull) calves that have high proportion of connective tissue to muscle/flesh because of less time for muscle development = less tender
  • Grain fed weighs more than milk fed
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15
Q

What are ways to tenderize less tender cuts of meat other than moist cooking?

A
  1. Acid (beer, wine, lemon juice, tomato juice)
    - Added to raw meat
    - Marinating meat: place raw meat in seasoned liquid (marinade) which contains acid to add flavour and tenderize meat
    - Increases water holding capacity of actin and myosin = increase in juiciness
    - Cooking that meat in acid hydrolyzes collagen connective tissue into gelatin = increase in tenderness
    - If you add acid to partially cooked meat, acid hydrolyzes collagen into gelatin = increase in tenderness but not juiciness
  2. Mechanical action (chopping, grinding, pounding)
    - Breaks up large diameter muscle fibres and connective tissue
    - Increases surface area, allowing for areas for heat/moisture to hydrolyze collagen into gelatin
  3. Proteolytic enzymes (papain from papayas, ficin from figs, bromelain from pineapple)
    - Hydrolyzes peptide bonds between amino acids (breaking linkage) in muscle fibres
    - Affects collagen and elastin both
    - Amount of enzyme and length of time must be controlled
    - Otherwise meat becomes mushy in texture due to myosin and actin being completely hydrolyzed
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16
Q

What is Maillard browning?

A
  • Nonenzymatic browning reaction on the surface of meat or baked products
  • If you coat the meat in flour, it is dextrin browning reaction
  • Occurs in high heat, low moisture conditions (dry heat cooking methods)
  • Reaction occurs between amino acids (protein) + reducing sugar + dry heat conditions = melanoids (brown coloured pigments)
  • Reducing sugar is glucose in meat or fructose, lactose or galactose in baked products
  • NOT sucrose (white sugar) as it can be further broken down
17
Q

Discuss meat colour.

A

Chromoproteins: myoglobin (80-90% of meat colour), hemoglobin (10-20% of meat colour)

  1. Myoglobin is the colour of raw meat = purplish colour
    - Globin: protein
    - Heme: nonprotein, ring structure, conjugated double bonds, never changes
    - Central Fe atom: found in heme, exists in reduced (2+) or oxidized (3+) state
    - Water: replaced by oxygen or nitric acid
  2. Oxygenation: addition of 2 O2 atoms to myoglobin to form oxymyoglobin
    - Water molecule is replaced with oxygen
    - Colour changes from purple-red to bright-red
  3. When oxygen is depleted, myoglobin forms metmyoglobin instead (brown-ish ed)
    - Occurs when meat is covered in wrap that is not permeable to oxygen, coating meat in flour/marinade, or stacking meat
  4. When reducing substances (chemicals in meat) are depleted, iron atom is oxidized
    - Occurs when meat is stored in higher temperatures or when microorganisms grow and multiply (odour, slime)
    - Colour changes to grey-brown
  5. When you cook meat, you denature the globin protein and central iron atom moves to oxidized state from the heat
    - Denatured globin hemichrome forms
    - Internal colour of meat is brown or grey-brown
18
Q

Discuss Salmon colour.

A
  • Salmon contains a pigment called astaxanthin (carotenoid)
  • Very stable during cooking (becomes more opaque, slight fading)
  • Dry-heat methods are used to allow Maillard browning to occur
19
Q

What is cured meat? What is in the mixture?

A
  • Occurs to pork, beef, chicken (bacon, ham, corned beef, pastrami, sausages)
  • Often vacuum packaged = anaerobic conditions = preserve

Involves applying a curing mixture to fresh meat in the form of liquid or dry rub/mixture

  1. Salt
  2. Sodium nitrite
    - Produces nitric oxide, converted to nitrosamines (carcinogenic) during cooking at high temperatures
    - Limit consumption, cook at moderate temperatures
  3. Seasoning/flavouring
20
Q

Discuss cured meat colour.

A
  1. Covering raw meat with curing mixture excludes oxygen = myoglobin/oxymyoglobin converted to metmyoglobin
  2. Water molecule attached to metmyoglobin is replaced by nitric oxide produced by sodium nitrite = nitric oxide myoglobin forms = red/pink colour
  3. When cured meat is cooked, nitrosyl hemochrome is formed = intense pink in the interior
  4. Globin portion is denatured but nitric oxide is still attached
21
Q

What are the cooking losses in meat?

A
  1. Evaporation of water
    - Occurs more with dry heat methods (>100 C)
    - Lower in rare than well-done meat
  2. Drip loss (fat, fat-soluble vitamins, pigments, protein)
    - Higher with moist heat
    - Retained in sauce/gravy
  3. Nutrients
    - Higher with larger surface area
    - Greater loss of B-vitamins (especially thiamin)
    - More common in dry heat cooking methods due to increase in temperature
22
Q

What is the composition of baked products?

A
  1. Endosperm
    - Starch granules
    - 70-75% protein
    - 20% B-vitamins
  2. Aleurone cells
    - Most of the protein and B-vitamins are found here (combination of endosperm and bran)
  3. Bran
    - 20% protein
    - >60% B-vitamins
    - Fibre (hemicellulose, cellulose)
  4. Scutellum
  5. Germ
    - 8% protein
    - 30% of B-vitamins
    - Saturated fats
23
Q

What are the types of flour? Discuss milling.

A

Milling: conversion of wheat grain into white flours by separating bran and germ from endosperm and reducing size of endosperm into flour size particles.

  1. White flours
    - Only endosperm
    - All purpose flour: 10.5% protein
    - Cake & pastry flour: 9.7% protein
    - Bread flour: 11.8% protein
  2. Whole wheat flours
    - Bran, germ, and endosperm
    - 13% protein
24
Q

What is gluten and what does it do? How does it form?

A
  • Complex protein created from proteins gliadin (plasticity) and glutenin (elasticity) found in wheat, rye, and oat flours
  • Hydration (water added) and manipulation (mixing, kneading)

Gives visco-elastic properties to batters and dough:

  • Allows them to hold small air cells
  • Allows a dough to be kneaded and rolled
  • Allows batters and doughs to expand
25
Q

What are the factors of gluten development? Why is this important?

A

Excess gluten development makes products tough + causes peak to form on top of muffins and tunnels inside due to air pockets not being able to go to gluten concentrated areas.

  1. Type of flour
    - All purpose has less protein than whole wheat
    - Both are used for all types of baked products
  2. Manipulation
    - Increase in manipulation = increase in gluten development
  3. Amount of liquid
    - Muffins have greater proportion of milk, so overmixing can be a problem
    - Excess liquid = increase in gluten development
    - In tea biscuits, adding extra liquids = sticky dough = more flour = more manipulation = more gluten
  4. Tenderizers: limit gluten development
    - Sugar: competes with gliadin and glutenin proteins for water, reduces hydration of gliadin and glutenin, controls gluten development = more tender
    - Fat: coats flour particles so water has difficulty hydrating gliadin and gluten because fat and water are immiscible = controls gluten development
    - Liquid fat coats flour particles more than solid fats
    - Note: while solid fat can be melted into liquid fat, do not use liquid fat in tea biscuits instead of solid fat or will have adverse effects on flake formation
  5. Bran/cornmeal/oatmeal
    - Very dry + small particles
    - Dry particles compete with gliadin and glutenin for water which reduces hydration = less gluten development
    - Small particles physically interfere with development of long gluten strands into its elastic self with manipulation = shorter strands develop = more tender
26
Q

What are the functions of liquid ingredients in baked goods?

A
  1. Structure
    - Hydrate gliadin and glutenin proteins and starch in flour
  2. Leavening
    - Dissolve baking powder/soda so carbon dioxide can be produced
    - Produce water to produce steam during baking
  3. Colour
    - Lactose in milk is involved with Maillard
27
Q

What are the functions of eggs in baked goods?

A
  1. Structural
    - Water in egg whites hydrates gliadin and glutenin
    - Egg proteins denature during beating and coagulate during baking
  2. Leavening
    - Lecithin acts as an emulsifier
    - Water in egg whites produces steam during baking
  3. Colour
    - Carotenoid pigments in egg yolk give colour to cake
    - Amino acids are involved in Maillard browning reaction
28
Q

What are the commonly used fats in baking?

A

Unsaturated = vegetable oils; saturated = solid.

  • Butter: water-in-fat emulsion (80% fat, 20% water)
  • Margarine: water-in-fat emulsion (80% fat, 20% water)
  • Shortening: 100% fat, partially hydrogenated vegetable oil, mix of solid and liquid fat = easier to manipulate and incorporate air
  • Vegetable oil: 100% fat
29
Q

What is fat rancidity and the types? How do you prevent it?

A

Unpleasant odour and flavour development in pure fats or foods that contain fat

  1. Oxidative rancidity: vegetable oils
    - Complex chain reaction involving oxygen coming into contact with double bonds, catalyzed by heat, light, Fe, Cu
    - Results in production of aldehydes and ketones = tastes waxy and stale
    - Increased susceptibility if more double bonds
    - To prevent, use opaque packaging to prevent exposure to light, store away from light, keep away from heat sources (oven, fridge), use vacuum packaging (no oxygen), add antioxidants (BHA, BHT, propyl galiate to stop chain reaction, citric acid, EDTA to tie up metal ions)
  2. Hydrolytic rancidity: animal fats
    - More rare and noticeable
    - Fatty acids split away from glycerol backbone, have unpleasant odours and flavours (butyric acid in butter and lard, tastes like rotten eggs)
    - Catalyzed by heat and lipase
    - To prevent, store fats at cool temperatures
30
Q

What are the functions of fats in baking?

A
  1. Tenderizer (all baked products)
  2. Flake formation (tea biscuits)
  3. Leavening/air incorporation (cakes)
    - Occurs during creaming (manipulation of solid fat to incorporate air) of solid fat (shortening is more plastic)
    - During baking, fat melts, releasing air cells
    - Steam and carbon dioxide collect and expand air cells = increase in volume, cake rises
  4. Leavening/emulsification (cakes)
    - Cakes contain large amounts of fat and water (fat-in-water emulsion) so emulsifier is needed to keep fat and incorporated air cells evenly distributed throughout cake batter
    - Lecithin in egg yolks or mono/diglycerides in shortening
    - Increase number of air cells and decrease size of air cells = more uniform texture
    - If emulsifiers are not present, fat floats to top of butter
31
Q

Discuss tea biscuit flake formation.

A
  • Cut solid fat (shortening, butter, margarine) into flour mixture until discrete pieces
  • Add milk to hydrate gliadin and glutenin proteins in flour to form dough
  • Knead dough to develop gluten
  • Roll dough to flatten pieces of fat and orient gluten strands in same direction
  • Pieces of fat melt, leaving spaces between gluten strands
  • Carbon dioxide and steam collect in spaces and expand, pushing apart gluten strands
  • Gluten denatures and coagulates during baking to create permanent layers with spaces in between = flakes
32
Q

What is the function of leavening gases in baking? What are the gases and how are they incorporated?

A

Production or expansion of gases in batter/dough gives final product an increased volume and light, porous texture

  1. Air
    - Incorporated by sifting flour and other dry ingredients, beating eggs with fork, and mixing batters
    - During baking, air cells are expanded by carbon dioxide and steam = increase in height/volume
    - In tea biscuit doughs, melted fat produces air cells and carbon dioxide expands pockets = increase height, creates flakes
    - More air cells = greater volume
  2. Steam
    - Produced from ingredients containing water (milk, yogurt, fruit, molasses, buttermilk, sour cream, fruit juices, egg whites) not vegetable oils or dried fruits
    - Produced during baking when water is heated
  3. Carbon dioxide
    - Produced from baking powder and baking soda
    - Baking powder: sodium bicarbonate + 2 dry acids in perfect balance (only react with each other), 5-10 mL baking powder for 250 mL flour
    - Dry acid 1 (monocalcium phosphate monohydrate) + baking soda + moisture during mixing = CO2
    - Dry acid 2 (sodium aluminum sulfate) + remaining baking soda + heat of baking = more CO2
    - Baking soda: ust sodium bicarbonate, alkaline, needs acid (fruit, fruit juice, molasses, buttermilk, yogurt, sour cream) to react with, 2 mL baking soda for every 250 mL acid ingredient
    - Baking soda + acid = sodium salt (no undesirable flours or colours) + CO2 + water
    - Baking soda = sodium carbonate (bitter, sodium reacts with fat to produce soapy flavour) + carbon dioxide + water
    - pH increases = flavonoid pigments in flour turn yellow = yellow interior
    - Maillard reaction occurs faster = excess browning on outside surface if bake full time or undercooked
33
Q

What are the functions of sugar in baking?

A
  1. Tenderizer (all baked products)
  2. Leavening agent/creaming of fat and sugar together (cakes)
    - Air clings to sharp edges of sugar (granulated, not icing or powdered)
    - Air is incorporated into fat
  3. Leavening agent/decreases loss of carbon dioxide from batter (muffins, cakes)
    - Sugar dissolves faster than baking soda/powder in water, less water for reaction to occur
    - Leavening agent/protects against carbon dioxide loss from batter during mixing and will instead be produced as it is going into oven
  4. Leavening agent/allows batters and dough to reach maximum volume (all baked products)
    - Sugar forms hydrogen bonds with starch granules (delays gelatinization) and gluten/egg/whey proteins (delays coagulation)
    - More time for carbon dioxide and steam to expand air cells/pockets = maximum volume
  5. Colour (all baked products)
    - Carmelizelization of sucrose is a nonenzymatic browning reaction
    - Occurs in dry heat conditions (top and sides of product)
    - Sucrose hydrolyzes into fructose/glucose which go through a series of reactions creating brown pigments
34
Q

Discuss chocolate cakes.

A
  • Add small amount of baking soda to increase pH
  • Slightly alkaline (pH 7.5-8.0) = deep, mahogany brown
  • Acidic (pH < 7) = yellow brown
  • Any unpleasant flavours (bitterness) and colours (Maillard) are masked by chocolate
35
Q

Discuss methods of mixing cakes.

A
  1. Quick-mix
    - All mixing is done with electric beater in one bowl
    - Receive more manipulation and contain more liquid to make beating easier = more gluten development
    - Therefore, have more fat and sugar (tenderizers)
  2. Conventional mixing
    - Use electric beater to cream fat and sugar, beat in eggs
    - Use wooden spoon to mix dry ingredients in with liquid ingredients
36
Q

What ingredients contribute to structure of baked products?

A
  1. Starch in flour
    - Gelatinization during baking (heat, water, starch)
    - Retrogradation during cooling = GEL
  2. Gliadin and glutenin proteins in flour
    - Gluten denatures and coagulates during baking
    - No stirring in oven = GEL
  3. Liquid ingredients containing water
    - Hydrate gliadin and glutenin proteins and starch in flour
  4. Eggs
    - Water in egg whites hydrates gliadin and glutenin proteins and starch in flour
    - Egg proteins denature during beating and coagulate during baking, no stir = GEL
37
Q

What ingredients contribute to colour of baked products?

A
  1. Sugar
    - Caramelization of sucrose causes browning on sides and surfaces of cake
  2. Liquid ingredients containing water
    - Lactose in milk undergoes Maillard
  3. Eggs
    - Carotenoid pigments in egg yolk give colour to cake
    - Amino acids are involved in Maillard
38
Q

What ingredients contribute to leavening of baked products?

A
  1. Sugar
    - Sharp edges of granulated sugar incorporate air cells into cake batter
    - Absorbs water faster than baking powder and soda, protecting against CO2 loss because most CO2 will be produced during baking not mixing
    - Increases gelatinization temperature of starch and coagulation temperature of proteins, allowing more time for cake to increase in volume before permanent structure forms
  2. Liquid ingredients containing water
    - Dissolve baking powder and soda so CO2 can be produced
    - Provide water to produce steam during baking
  3. Fat
    - Air cells are incorporated during the creaming of fat
    - Mono and diglycerides act as emulsifiers and evenly distribute fat and air cells throughout cake batter
  4. Eggs
    - Lecithin in egg yolk acts as an emulsifier and evenly distribute fat and air cells throughout cake batter
    - Water in egg whites produce steam during baking
  5. Baking powder and soda
    - Produces CO2
39
Q

What ingredients contribute to tenderness of baked products?

A
  1. Sugar
    - Competes with gliadin and glutenin for water, therefore less hydration of gliadin and glutenin
  2. Fat
    - Coats fat particles, therefore less hydration of gliadin and glutenin

VHTM (12 decks)

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