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Anatomy and Physiology 3 > Final > Flashcards

Final Flashcards

1
Q

four organs that make up the urinary system

A

Kidneys (filtration)

2) Ureters (transport urine to bladder)
3) Urinary bladder (store urine)
4) Urethra (release urine from body, “micturition”)

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2
Q

what are the major functions of the kidney in the body

A

1) Eliminate waste materials
2) Control volume and composition of body fluids (blood and urine)
3) Produce renin (blood pressure regulator)
4) Produce erythropoietin (stimulates RBC formation)
5) Metabolize vitamin D to active form (Ca++ uptake)

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3
Q

where is urine derived from

A

when blood comes through the glomularis and the podocytes filter out the filtrate the filtrate that is not reabsorbed that then becomes the urine.

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4
Q

what are the layers of the kidney

A

1) Fibrous capsule, 2) cortex (gloremuli are only found here),3) the medulla

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5
Q

nephron

A

responsible for urine formation. Because urine is derived from filtrate, which was taken from fluid in the blood, nephrons have a big role in blood volume.

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6
Q

urine

A

People produce around ~1-2 L of urine / day (around 1% of the volume of the total filtrate).
99% of filtrate is returned to blood

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7
Q

steps of urine filtration

A
  1. Glomerular filtration→ creates the plasma-like filtrate of blood
  2. Tubular reabsorption→ removes useful solutes from filtrate & returns them to blood
  3. Tubular secretion→ removes additional wastes from blood & adds to filtrate
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8
Q

renal corpuscle

A

consists of the glomerulus and the glomerular capsule.

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9
Q

Glomerular (or Bowman’s) Capsule

A

is the widened and expanded proximal end of tubule that encapsulates glomerulus

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10
Q

layers of the glomerular capsule

A

the parietal layer (outer) is made of simple squamous epithelium.
The visceral layer is the podocytes that cover the glomerular capillaries. These are thin cells that cover capillaries, with filtration slits between the podocytes.

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11
Q

proximal convoluted tubule

A 
a coiled tubule near the renal corpuscle, which is made of simple cuboidal epithelium that has microvilli to increase the surface area.
The majority (80%) of tubular reabsorption (step 2 of urinary production) occurs in the PCT.
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12
Q

loop of henle

A

a long, thin hairpin loop in the renal tubule. It contains Descending and ascending limbs.

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13
Q

descending tubule of the loop of henle

A

The descending limb contains a thin segment that is permeable only to water

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14
Q

ascending limb of the loop of henle

A

a thick segment, made of simple cuboidal epithelium, and a thin segment, made of simple squamous epithelium. The thin segment of the ascending limb is permeable to solutes and not water.

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15
Q

what solutes does the ascending limb pump out

A

Na+, K+, Cl-

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16
Q

distal convoluted tubule

A

The DCT is made of simple cuboidal epithelium without microvilli.
The DCT plays a role in acid/base balance (helps keep pH of the filtrate and the body in balance).
The DCT is targeted by the antidiuretic hormones ADH and Aldosterone.

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17
Q

collecting ducts

A

The collecting duct is made of simple cuboidal epithelium without microvilli.
It collects filtrate that is nearly urine. By the time the filtrate moves through the collecting duct, it is urine.
The collecting duct is also targeted by ADH and aldosterone.

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18
Q

glomerular filtration rate

A

is defined as the volume of filtrate formed each minute by the combined activity of all ~2 million nephrons.

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19
Q

net filtration pressure

A

The glomeruli and associated podocytes are very porous, have a large surface area, and thus large volumes of filtrate can be produced with a relatively modest NFP.
Only moderate pressure at the glomeruli is needed to produce a large amount of filtrate.
However, a drop in NFP of only 15% will stop filtration from occurring at all!

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20
Q

tubular reabsorption

A

is the act of returning fluid (H2O) & substances (glucose, amino acids, sodium, etc.) from the filtrate in renal tubules back to blood.
80% of tubular absorption occurs in the PCT (remember, the microvilli increase surface area to allow absorption to occur).

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21
Q

tubular secretion

A

During tubular secretion, substances that are not already in filtrate are eliminated (e.g. antibiotics)
Substances that were reabsorbed in step 2 are eliminated from the body (e.g. urea, sometimes Na+)
Substances are secreted in order to balancing pH (occurs at the proximal/distal convoluted tubules)

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22
Q

Renin-Angiotensin mechanism

A

Renin is an enzyme that activates the release of angiotensin II
Angiotensin II acts to vasoconstrict arterioles throughout body
Efferent arterioles constrict more than afferent arterioles, this increases the glomerular hydrostatic pressure
In addition to its role in vasoconstriction, angiotensin II also stimulates release of:
Aldosterone: increases Na+ reabsorption by kidney
ADH: increases water reabsorption by kidney – “water follows salt”

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23
Q

medullary osmotic gradient

A

allows the kidneys to vary the urine concentration dramatically.

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24
Q

how does the nephron concentrate filtrate and then dilute it.

A

In the descending loop, water leaves the renal tubule into the interstitial fluid (this water will then be picked up by the vasa recta).
In the ascending loop, water cannot enter or leave, but solutes are actively pumped out of the renal tubule into the interstitial fluid.
Solutes are actively transported from the renal tubule to the interstitial space. The saltier the filtrate, the more salt is removed.

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25
Q

diuretics

A

a substance that increases urinary output, and this lowers blood volume and blood pressure.
The natriuretic peptides (ANP and BNP) are diuretics.

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26
Q

ANP and BNP

A

control blood pressure by lowering blood volume (increasing the amount of water in urine).
ANP and BNP oppose the action of aldosterone and ADH (antidiuretics).

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27
Q

In a person who is dehydrated

A

aldosterone and ADH will act to remove as much water as possible from the filtrate at the DCT and collecting duct.
The filtrate was diluted to 100 mOsm as the filtrate enters the DCT, in a dehydrated person, the filtrate will be maximally concentrated at 1200 mOsm as it leaves the collecting duct (and is considered to be urine).

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28
Q

a very well-hydrated person

A

ANP and BNP will oppose the action of Aldosterone and ADH.
ANP and BNP will ensure that little or no water is returned to the blood stream (80% of the water was removed at the PCT, and more removed at the loop of Henle, but in a very well-hydrated person, no additional water is removed from the filtrate by the DCT and collecting duct).
In this situation, the filtrate will remain at 100 mOsm as it leaves the collecting duct (and is considered to be urine) rather than becoming any more concentrated.

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29
Q

URINE

A

Urine is 95% water, and 5% solute.

Solutes in urine include Urea (a nitrogenous waste), ions (sodium, potassium, phosphates, sulfates).

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30
Q

URINE: color

A 
Dilute urine (higher amount of water) is clear to pale yellow
Concentrated urine (lower amount of water) is dark yellow
The color of urine is due to the presence of a pigment called urochrome, which derived from the breakdown of hemoglobin (NOT the same pigment as bilirubin).
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31
Q

URINE:ph

A

Slightly acidic, with an average pH of 6, can range from 4.5-8

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32
Q

URINE:specific gravity

A

Since urine is water and some solutes, water has a higher specific gravity that water) urine is denser than water).

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33
Q

URINE: Sterility

A

unlike solid waste (feces) there is not normally bacteria present in urine. The kidney, ureter, bladder, and urethra are all sterile until coming in contact with the outside of the body.

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34
Q

two types of renal failure

A

acute renal failure, Chronic kidney disease/failure

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35
Q

acute renal failure

A

is the sudden and dramatic loss of kidney function, usually over hours to weeks.
There are many causes, including crushing injuries, poisons, severe kidney infection, tumors.

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36
Q

Chronic kidney disease

A

takes place over time, typically years.
Can be caused by polycystic kidney disease, complications from diabetes, hypertension (chronic high blood pressure), long-term use of some drugs (i.e. chronic NSAID use).

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37
Q

If the kidneys shut down

A

extra water and waste accumulation

  • Swollen extremities (edema),
  • low or no urinary output,
  • extreme fatigue due to buildup of wastes, and nausea. The kidneys themselves won’t experience pain (due to lack of nervous tissue in kidneys) but other parts of the body may experience pain.
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38
Q

uremia

A

extra water and waste accumulation

can cause seizures, coma, and death.

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39
Q

early chronic kidney failure remedies

A

treatments are focused on not overloading the kidneys.
Includes controlling blood glucose, lowering blood pressure, eating low protein, low cholesterol diet, limiting water intake.

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40
Q

end-stage kidney failure treatment

A

the only cure is to have a kidney transplant.

While waiting for a kidney transplant, patients can be kept alive with dialysis.

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41
Q

hemodialysis

A

where the blood is filtered by a machine, then returned to the body. Essentially using a machine to do the work of the kidneys.

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42
Q

Micturition

A

the removal of urine from the body

43
Q

what type of epithelium is used in micturition settings

A

transitional epithelium.

It is stratified epithelium that can change shape to accommodate the stretching of volume changes

44
Q

where is transitional epithelium found

A

Found in the renal pelvis, ureters, bladder, and proximal urethra.

45
Q

male urethra

A

The urethra has two tasks: to transport urine, and to transport gametes
The urethra is longer, and has to stretch to accommodate erection.

46
Q

female urethra

A

The urethra transports urine only (the gametes enter/exit through the vagina)
The urethra is shorter, does not stretch as much as the male urethra.

47
Q

gonads

A

Organs that produce gametes and hormones
Testes
Ovaries

48
Q

ducts

A

Receive and transport gametes

49
Q

accessory glands

A

Secrete fluids into ducts

50
Q

external genitalia

A

Whatever structures are externally visible (penis and scrotum, or the structures that make up the vulva).

51
Q

function of the male reproductive system

A
  1. Produce sperm cells and deposit them into the vagina
52
Q

function of the female reproductive system

A
  1. Produce egg cells (ova/oocytes)
  2. Protect and nourish offspring until birth (pregnancy)
    Pregnancy “officially” lasts 40 weeks. 36-40 weeks is considered full term.
53
Q

primary sex characteristics

A

the body structures directly involved in reproduction, such as testes, ovaries, and the external genitalia.

54
Q

secondary sex characteristics

A

body structures that occur or change during puberty which are not directly involved in reproduction

55
Q

secondary sex characteristics caused by

A

caused by testosterone (in males) and estrogens (in females)

56
Q

secondary sex characteristics male

A

facial hair, body hair, larger larynx/deeper voice, heavier bone and muscle mass, increased height.

57
Q

secondary sex characteristics female

A

body hair, widening of hips, enlargement of breasts, changed distribution of fat (deposited in hips/buttocks, cellulite), menstruation.

58
Q

sexual differentiation in devolopment

A

At weeks 7-9, the fetus begins to sexually differentiate. Before that, embryonic genital tissues are identical.

59
Q

Male and female parts of genitalia which share same origins.

A

derived from the same developmental roots.
The penis and clitoris are derived from same embryonic tissues
The scrotum and labia majora are derived from same embryonic tissues
The testes and ovaries are derived from same embryonic tissues

60
Q

what type of ducts do males and females start their development out with

A

with Wolffian and Müllerian ducts.

61
Q

Müllerian ducts

A

the precursor of the female reproductive system.
The Müllerian ducts will develop into the fallopian tubes, the uterus, cervix, and part of the vagina.
In males, the developing testes secrete hormones at week 8 (testosterone, androgens) that cause the Müllerian ducts to disappear prior to birth.

62
Q

wolffian ducts

A

a lack of male hormones lead to the Wolffian ducts disappearing prior to birth.

63
Q

Intersex

A

individuals have sexual anatomy that doesn’t seem to fit the typical definitions of male or female.

64
Q

androgen insensitivity disorder

A

XY individuals with vulva and vagina.
AIS individuals don’t receive the hormones during fetal development that cause penis and testes development (usually causes infertility).
Remember, in the female reproductive system, a lack of testosterone and androgens lead to the Wolffian ducts disappearing before birth.
During AIS, insufficient hormones are produced, or the fetus is unable to detect the hormones, and the fetus develops typically female reproductive organs.

65
Q

Klinefelter’s syndrome:

A

XXY males (individuals with 47 chromosomes, rather than the normal 46)
Usually have breast tissue, wide hips, also have a penis and testes though their genitals may be unusually small.
Klinefelter’s usually causes infertility, since they have difficulty producing sperm.

66
Q

SRY gene

A

found on the Y chromosome and is needed to form the testes.

but for some reason it is not there so the testes are not developed

67
Q

XX male syndrome:

A

XX male syndrome is due to rare meiotic event, where an XX individual has the SRY gene.
XX males possess the SRY gene despite not having a Y chromosome, thus they develop a penis and testes.
This always causes infertility, since they do not possess the other genes found on the Y chromosome needed for fertility.

68
Q

scrotum

A

a skin pouch with muscles, nerves, fatty tissue, and blood vessels
The scrotum both contains and protects the testes

69
Q

spermatic cord

A
  • how the testes are connected to the pelvis
  • The spermatic cord contains blood vessels, nerves, muscles (cremaster muscles involved in temperature regulation) and the vas deferens (ductus deferens)
70
Q

lobules

A

The lobules contain the tightly-coiled seminiferous tubules

71
Q

seminiferous tubules

A

produce sperm

72
Q

spermatogenesis

A

the process of creating sperm cells through mitosis and the meiosis

73
Q

Sertoli cells

A

secrete hormones, supports spermiogenesis

74
Q

Leydig cells

A

function in testosterone production.

75
Q

mitosis

A

normal cell division, where identical cells are produced

76
Q

Meiosis

A

specialized cell division that produces gametes

77
Q

functions of accessory gland secretions

A

Contribute to spermatozoa motility (the sperm’s ability to swim). Providing nutrients spermatozoa need for motility (fructose)
Move spermatozoa and fluids along reproductive tract
via Peristaltic contractions
Protect: Producing buffers to counteract acidity of urethral and vaginal environments

78
Q

Seminal Vesicles secreations

A

Fructose (nutrient source)
Coagulating enzymes
Alkaline fluid (neutralizes acid)

79
Q

prostate gland

A

Citrate (nutrient source)

80
Q

Bulbo-urethral glands:

A

Secretes a thick, clear mucus (pre-ejaculate fluid) before ejaculation that clears the urethra of substances left behind from urine

81
Q

erection

A

At rest, the vessels are constricted, little blood flow through the penile tissues, thus the penis is usually flaccid
During arousal, nitrous oxide from parasympathetic nerves dilates blood vessels.
This causes a high level of blood flow through the corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum, leads to erection, where the penis is harder and has expanded in length (allows the penis to enter into he vagina to deposit semen).

82
Q

female reproductive duct system includes:

A

Fallopian (uterine) tubes
Uterus
Vagina

83
Q

uterus

A

the organ of gestation; if conception and pregnancy occurs, the fetus develops in the protective environment of the uterus.

84
Q

endometrium

A
  • a vascular layer that supports the fetus in gestation.
    -what is shed as menstrual blood during menstruation
    changes are controlled by estrogens & progesterone from the ovary
85
Q

3 Phases of menstation

A 
Menstrual phase (sloughing the endometrial lining).
Proliferative (pre-ovulatory) phase
Secretory phase (where ovulation occurs, i.e. during fertility).
86
Q

Ovaries function

A 
Produce oocytes (ova, egg cells)
Secretion of sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone).
87
Q

ovary facts

A
  • During ovulation, an oocyte is released from one ovary.
  • The fallopian tubes are not directly attached to the ovary; some ova aren’t caught by the fimbriae, and are lost in the peritoneum.
88
Q

contraception

A
  • is a term for any method used to prevent pregnancy despite intercourse
  • No contraceptive method offers 100% protection against pregnancy, though some are very effective.
  • There are methods that are short-term, long-term, and permanent.
  • Some methods also prevent STIs (sexually transmitted infections, such as HIV or syphillus), though most do not.
89
Q

Without contraception

A

> 80% of women (who are regularly having intercourse) will become pregnant within one year.

90
Q

Permanent contraception

A

Vasectomy

Tubal ligation

91
Q

Vasectomy

A

A procedure to cut and tie the vas deferens
Prevents sperm from entering the semen, thus no sperm present to cause pregnancy.
>99% effective, though occasionally the vas deferens will reconnect in the body and the surgery must be repeated.

92
Q

Tubal ligation

A

A procedure to cut and tie (or just tie) the fallopian tubes.
This prevents ova from being able to enter the uterus, so that pregnancy cannot occur.
Pregnancy is very rare, but still possible (slightly more common than pregnancy with an IUD), due to the fallopian tubes rarely reconnecting (similar to the vas deferens).

93
Q

Long-term contraception

A

Intrauterine device:
The implant:
The shot

94
Q

Intrauterine device:

A

a T-shaped piece of plastic that is inserted into the cervix to sit in the uterus.
Most IUDs are hormonal (they release progestin) though some use copper.
Thickens cervical mucus to prevent sperm entering the uterus, some IUDs prevent ovulation.
Physically blocks the opening of the cervix.
Lasts 3-12 years, >99.9% effective (more effective than tubal ligation).

95
Q

The implant:

A

A small rod inserted under the skin.
Releases progestin to thicken cervical mucus; prevents ovulation.
Lasts ~4 years; >99% effective.

96
Q

The shot

A

Is an injection of progestin.
Thickens cervical mucus, prevents ovulation (makes the body think it is pregnant).
Each shot lasts 3 months; 99.9% effective with correct use.
May reduce fertility for weeks or months afterwards.

97
Q

Short term contraception

A

The Pill
Condoms:
Fertility awareness methods:

98
Q

the pill

A

Numerous types of pills, all contain hormones, and must be taken every day at the same time.
Prevents ovulation, thickens cervical mucus
99% effective with perfect use (taken every day, at the same time).
In users over 35 who smoke, there is an increased risk of stroke and blood clots (also true for the ring and the patch).

99
Q

Condoms

A 
Standard condoms fit over the penis to contain semen; internal condoms fit in the vagina to prevent sperm entering the reproductive tract. 
Internal condoms are less likely to break, though more expensive and more difficult to find
Greatly reduces risk of STIs, 98% effective with perfect use
Improper storage (such as a glove box or wallet) increases the risk of the condom breaking, negating pregnancy and STI prevention.
100
Q

Fertility awareness methods:

A

Tracking the menstrual cycle to determine what days a person is capable of becoming pregnant (fertility) and avoiding intercourse on those days.
Tracking menstrual cycle, cervical mucus changes, and/or body temperature to determine what days a woman is fertile.
~80% effective (varies considerably depending on how effectively an individual can track their fertility and how effectively a couple avoids intercourse on those days).

101
Q

podocytes

A

cells in the glomerular capsule in the kidneys that wrap around capillaries of the glomerulus.

102
Q

vasa recta

A

the capillaries that surround the PCT and the loop of henle that are used for tubular reabsorption

103
Q

where is excess K+ excreted

A

it will be moved during tubular secretion (this occurs at the collecting ducts)

Anatomy and Physiology 3 (5 decks)

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