Final Flashcards
1
Q
Define physiology
A
Function, how body structures work
2
Q
Four primary tissues
A
Muscle: movement
Nervous: control
Epithelial: cover, protect
Connective: support, connect
3
Q
Muscular tissue
A
Skeletal: attached to skeleton to move bones at will, voluntary, cells are long and cylindrical, striated, multi nucleated
Cardiac: involuntary, found only in heart
Striated, smaller than skeletal, branched, intercalated discs that connect cells so they contract as one
Smooth: involuntary, non striated (smooth), smaller than skeletal, in GI tract, eyes, uterus, smaller arteries
4
Q
Nervous tissue
A
Neurons: fast communication
Glia: help neurons do their job
5
Q
Epithelial tissue
A
Membranes: cover body and organs and line the inside of hollow organs
Like sheets bc they’re tightly bound
Glands: derived from membranes
6
Q
Characteristics of epithelial tissue
A
Have polarity
Apical surface: exterior open space
Basal surface: attached to substratum
Non vascularized
7
Q
What are epithelial tissue cells classified as?
A
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
Simple
Stratified
8
Q
Squamous
A
Flattened and scale like
Nucleus flattened
For rapid diffusion in lungs
9
Q
Cuboidal
A
Boxlike
Nucleus round
Secretion or absorption in kidney tubules
10
Q
Columnar
A
Tall; column shaped
Nucleus elongated
For absorption in gut
11
Q
Simple
A
One layer
12
Q
Stratified
A
More than one laying of cells
13
Q
Basement membrane
A
Thick separation between two types of tissue made of extra cellular molecules that cells of tissue on either side secrete
14
Q
Gland
A
One or more cells that makes and secretes an aqueous fluid:secretion
Unicellular: goblet cells
Multicellular
15
Q
Endocrine glands
A
Ductless, release into bloodstream
16
Q
Exocrine
A
Have ducts, release outside of body or into into cavity of hollow organ
Sweat, salivary, mucous, oil glands
17
Q
Connective tissue
A
Most abundant of primary tissues
Relatively few cells in a sea of matrix made of protein fibers collagen and elastin and interstitial fluid
Vascularized except for cartilage
18
Q
Collagen fibers
A
Like a rope for strength and cushioning
19
Q
Elastic fibers
A
For elasticity
20
Q
Connective tissue proper
A
Fibroblast/cyte (cyte=mature)
Extra cellular matrix is gel like
Can be loose (areolar, adipose, riticular) or dense (regular, irregular, elastic)
21
Q
Loose connective tissue areolar
A
Loosely arranged collagen and elastic fibers
Packaging tissue: wraps and cushions organs
Areolar refers to open spaces between fibers
22
Q
Loose connective tissue proper adipose
A
Fat tissue
Adipocytes store fat molecules as fuel reserve
Insulated against heat loss and supports and protects organs
23
Q
Dense connective tissue proper regular
A
Collagen fibers arranged parallel in order to resist stress when pulled from ONE direction
Found in tendons and ligaments
24
Q
Dense connective tissue proper irregular
A
Arranged irregularly to resist stress in ANY direction
Dermis of skin cancer
25
Cartilage
Chondroblasts/cytes
Gel like matrix to resist compression
26
Hyaline cartilage
Amorphous but firm matrix
In embryonic skeleton, nose, ribs, trachea, larynx
27
Elastic cartilage
Elastic matrix
Outer ear, epiglottis
28
Fibrocartilage
Fibrous (more thick collagen fibers)
More fibrous to be a better shock absorber
I'm intervertebral discs, knee joint
29
Bone
Osteoblasts/cytes/clasts
Gel like matrix but hardened w calcium salts
Spongy bone and compact bone
30
Spongy bone
Space between red bone marrow, where blood cells are born
31
Compact bone
Minerals like calcium stored here, harden bone
32
Blood
Erythrocytes(RBC)
Leukocytes(WBC)
Platelets
Matrix in liquid plasma to carry molecules throughout the body like nutrients, wastes, and respiratory gases
33
Homeostasis
Dynamic constancy of the internal environment
Ex: body temp constant at 37 degrees C
34
Negative feedback
Go in opposite direction if stimulus
35
Positive feedback
Go in same direction as stimulus
36
Negative feedback example
If body temp falls above or below normal
Sensor: senses this stimulus (hypothalamus in brain)
Integrating center: integrates sensory info and alerts effector (hypothalamus in brain)
Effector: effects a response (sweat glands secrete sweat to cool) (skeletal muscles contract to shiver and generate heat)
37
pH
A measure of the concentration of H+ (hydrogen ions or protons) in an aqueous solution
7 neutral
Below 7 acidic
Above 7 basic or alkaline
Scale is logarithmic
38
NonPolar molecules
Charges equally distributed
| CH4
39
Polar molecules
Partial negative and partial positive
Unequal
NH3
40
Hydrolysis
If cells are hungry they can hydrolysis glycogen and feed monosaccharides to cells
Hydro (water) lyse (break off units)
One disaccharide--> 2 monosaccharides (carbs)
41
Triglycerides
1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids= 1 triglyceride
42
Plasma membrane
Phospholipid bilayer: phosphor heads polar, fatty acid tails nonpolar, desperate in from out of cell
Bilayer is fluid so proteins can move along its plane
Cholesterol (yellow) makes membrane more rigid
Proteins (purple) communicate signals in and out of cell(integral), can be structural, receptors, enzymes, transporters
Carbohydrates (green) on outer surface only and involved in cell-cell recognition and cell signaling
43
Lysosomes
Organelles that digest
Have digestive enzymes and acidic pH to help digest
Food vacuoles: engulf food and fuse with lysosomes
Autophagosomes: engulf dead organelles and fuse with lysosomes to have organelles recycled
44
Process of making a protein
Transcribed into mRNA (copy of the gene made in the nucleus)
mRNA leaves nucleus through nuclear pores and comes across a ribosome where the message is TRANSLATED into a polypeptide
After the transcript(mRNA) is made TRANSFER RNA (tRNA) read the transcript code and transfer the amino acid to the growing polypeptide chain
Once the polypeptide is made it only has primary structure so it must be further processed and folded to become functional (first happens in ROUGH ER)
From rough ER the polypeptide is transported to the GOLGI COMPLEX to be further processed and sent to its final destination
If it's a secreted protein it makes it to the plasma membrane
45
Chromatin remodeling
Not all genes are turned on (made into protein) all the time. One way to regulate which genes are turned on or off is by this
46
Euchromatin
DNA loosely wound so easily turned on
47
Heterochromatin
Tightly wound so not easily turned on
48
RNA interference
Cells must regulate how much protein to make at a given time, by upregulating or downregulating gene expression
Downregulating is an example of this
Small pieces of RNA bind to mRNA to block transcription
49
Alternative splicing
Human proteome has more proteins than we do genes bc of this
After transcript is made introns are removed and exons spliced back together and this allows for >1 protein per gene
50
Enzymes
Molecules the speed up chemical reactions by energizing reactants, thus lowering the activation energy of the chemical reaction
51
Kinases
Add phosphate groups
52
Phophatases
Remove phosphate groups
53
Synthases
Dehydration synthesis
54
Hydrolases
Hydrolysis
55
Dehydrogenases
Remove hydrogen atoms
56
Isomerases
Rearrange atoms
57
What factors affect enzymatic activity and how?
Temperature (optimal temp)
pH (optimal pH)
Concentration of enzyme and substrate
(The more substrate the higher the enzymatic activity, faster the reaction rate)
Concentration of cofactors (metal ions like Ca, Mg, Mn, Cu, Zn) and coenzymes(organic molecules that transport hydrogen atoms and small molecules between enzymes (all Help enzymes)
Products of reaction (reduce and oxidizing)
58
Endergonic reactions
Requires and input of energy to synthesize like molecules
59
Exergonic reactions
Releases energy by breaking down large molecules into small
60
Respiration of glucose
Glucose is first energized with 2 ATPs then metabolized to yield 2 molecules of pyruvic acid
A net of 2 ATP is produced
61
Respiration of glucose anaerobic
Referred to as lactic acid fermentation
Wo O2 pyruvic acid cannot be further metabolized but NADH must regenerate which it does by reducing pyruvic acid to lactic acid
Pyruvic acid is the final electron acceptor
62
Respiration of glucose aerobic
Pyruvic acid enters the mitochondrial on and is converted to acetyl CoA
Next acetyl CoA enters the citric acid (krebs cycle) where it is completely metabolized
From each of the 2 acetyl CoA one ATP as product and two CO2 as byproduct
The electrons carried by NADH and FADH2 are then transported via redox reactions through a series of molecules (ETC) in the inner mitochondrial membrane (this releases energy that's used to pump protons H+ up a concentration gradient)
The protons then move back to matrix through the channel protein ATP synthase
This movement down the concentration gradient releases energy that is used to add phosphates to ADPs and make about 30ATPS
The protons and electrons combine w O2 (the final electron acceptor) to form water the other biproduct of cellular respiration
63
Glycogenesis
Glucose that does not enter glycolysis can be stored as glycogen through this process
Stored in skeletal muscle and to a lesser extent cardiac muscle and liver store more
64
Glycogenolysis
If glucose is needed cells perform this process to break down glycogen
Liver has enzymes for this
65
Molecules that freely diffuse across membrane
Hydrophobic molecules
| Non polar like steroids or O2
66
Molecules that can't freely diffuse across membrane
Hydrophilic molecules and inorganic ions(ca, na, cl)
They need channel or carrier to help them
67
Passive transport
Doesn't require energy
| Exergonic
68
Active transport
Requires energy
Bc pumping molecules up concentration gradient is endergonic
69
Primary active transport
The pump (carrier protein) is an ATPase. When ATP is hydrolyzed the energy released is used to pump molecules up their concentration gradient
Ca+ pump
Na/K+ pump
70
Secondary active transport (coupled transport)
Diffusion of Na+ into the cell releases energy that is then used to pump a molecule or ion
71
What types of cells are excitable?
Neurons, cardiac, and skeletal muscle cells
72
Resting membrane potential
Vm at rest cells are not excited
But when excited cells conduct impulse or AP that accumulates a cellular response ex a muscle cell contracts
73
Paracrine signaling
Target cells are nearby so signaling molecule diffuses to target
74
Synaptic signaling
Communication happens at synapse, special connection between neuron and another cells
Neurotransmitter is the signaling molecule
75
Endocrine signaling
Target cell is far away so the signaling molecule, the hormone, enters the bloodstream
76
CNS
Brain and spinal cord
77
PNS
Nerves and their ganglia
78
Sensory (input) PNS and Motor (output) PNS
Sensory PNS senses incoming info from outside or inside of body and sends it to CNS
CNS integrates input and tells motor PNS how to respond
Motor PNS (output) responds
79
Sensory or afferent
Nerves send signals from both outside and inside of body to CNS
5 senses
From skin or tendons (are u sitting up straight?)
Internal organs
80
Motor or efferent
Nerves send signals from CNS to effector organs which effect a response
Somatic
Autonomic
81
Somatic
Voluntary control
Skeletal muscles
82
Autonomic
Involuntary control
Smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands
83
Parts of a neuron
Dendrites: receive incoming info
Cell body:nucleus and integrates info
Axons: conduct impulses or AP
Axon hillock
Node of ranvier
84
White matter
Myelinated axons appear whitish
| So axonal tracts are this
85
Gray matter
Areas with cell bodies that are darker
86
Schwann cells
Surround and myelinate axons
Myelin sheath: wraps around many times on bigger axons increasing speed of conduction
87
Satellite cells
Support cell bodies
88
Ependymal cells
Like cavities of the brain and spinal cord
89
Microglia
Play an immune function in the CNS
When activated can phagocytose
90
Oligodendrocytes
Myelinate SEVERAL axons
91
Astrocytes
Most abundant type of glia
Help recycle neurotransmitters
Pick up glucose from blood and turn it into lactic acid and pass it on to neurons which can use it to metabolize aerobically
92
How does myelin affect the speed of action of an AP
Faster bc ions enter or leave the cell only at the nodes of Ranvier. The AP therefore jumps for node to node
93
Frontal lobe
Controls voluntary movement
| Higher intellectual processes
94
Somatosensory cortex
Integrates cutaneous (from skin) and propioceptive (about self) info from muscles, tendons, and joint receptors then communicates this processed info to the primary motor cortex from where voluntary muscles are controlled
95
Pre central gyrus
Producing and coordinating movement
96
Limbic system
Emotional drives
97
Pineal gland
Secretes the hormone melatonin which regulates sleep-wake cycles
98
Thalamus
The gateway to the cerebral cortex bc it serves as a relay center for all sensory info(except olfactory) coming into the cortex
99
Hypothalamus
Main visceral control center
Regulates autonomic processes like body temp and food and water intake
Itself a giant, regulates the pituitary gland(the master gland) that in turn regulates endocrine glands throughout the body
Heart of the limbic system
100
Midbrain
Has
Substantia nigra: project to basal nuclei and are the ones that die in Parkinson's
Ventral tegmental area: project to several areas of the limbic system and involved in behavioral reward and drug addictions
101
Medulla
Viral respiratory centers
Regulate muscles of our ribs responsible for breathing(so we don't stop)
Has vital centers that regulate autonomic control of the heart and blood vessels
102
Reflex arc
Receptor
Sensory neuron
Interneurons
Motor neuron
Effector
103
Reflex
Unconscious motor response to a sensory stimulus
104
Monosynaptic reflex
Involves only a sensory and motor neuron(knee jerk reflex)
105
Polysynaptic reflex
May or may not involve the brain
106
Spinal reflex
involve more than one synapse
| an example is the withdrawal reflex of the hand from a painful stimulus (such as fire)
107
Cranial reflex
mediated by pathways in the cranial nerves and brain; examples are the blinking and swallowing reflexes
108
Sympathetic preganglionic neurons
Arise in T1-L2
109
Paravertebral (sympathetic)
Make up the sympathetic chain of ganglia and are parallel w the vertebrae
110
Collateral (sympathetic)
Closer to the effector organ
111
Adrenal medulla (sympathetic)
Acts as a collateral ganglion too
112
Adrenal medulla (parasympathetic)
Derived from the neural crest (nervous tissue)
Nervous function
Secretes hormones into the blood, so it's effector organs are found throughout the body
113
Terminal ganglia (parasympathetic)
Very close or within the effector organ
114
postganglionic neurotransmitters
Sympathetic: NE both
Parasympathetic: ACh (excitatory)
Adrenal medulla(into blood): E but also some NE both
115
Cocaine and amphetamines
Sympathomimetic (mimic sympathetic system)
Inhibit NE reuptake by MAO
116
Beta blockers
Sympathetic
Block b1
Treat hypertension
117
Albuterol
Sympathetic
Stimulates B2
Treat asthma opens up airways
118
Atropine
Parasympathetic
Blocks mAChR
Dilate pupils during eye exams
119
A1
Vasoconstriction in viscera and skin
120
B1
Increased heart rate and contractility
121
B2
Dilation of bronchioles and blood vessels
122
Hormones
Help regulate body metabolism, growth, and reproduction
123
What organs secrete hormones?
Heart
Liver
Kidneys
White adipose tissue
Hypothalamus
124
Where are target cells?
In the blood
125
T4 and T3
T4 is a prehormone
Within the target cell, an iodine is removed converting it to T3 the active form
126
Insulin
Binds to a tyrosine kinase receptor. Ligand binding causes the receptor to autophosphorylate . Now active, the receptor starts phosphorylating other substrates
127
Cortisol
Helps with recovery from acute stress( illness)
128
Fascicles
Bundles of muscle cells
129
Motor unit
The smallest functional unit of muscle contraction
130
Neuromuscular junction
Innervates muscle contraction
131
Sarcomere
From z disc to z disc
The contractile unit of the cell
Made of thick and thin filaments
Thin: actin
Thick: myosin
132
Increasing the voltage after you can see a muscle twitch will cause even more muscle fibers to contract and therefore a stronger what?
Grades muscle contraction
133
Maximal contraction
All muscle fibers contract
| Stimulus 7
134
Complete tetanus
When you're at a high enough frequency that the muscle has less time to relax or doesn't relax at all
135
Fatigue
When the muscle can no longer maintain contraction
136
Vo2 max or max rate of O2 consumption
You hit this at some point as you make ATP aerobically during moderate or heavy exercise
137
Oxygen debt
When you breath heavily during moderate/heavy exercise into to pay this back
138
Anaerobic threshold
Before you hit your VO2 max, usually you're at 50-70% of your max, your muscles start fermenting glucose from glycogen stores
This is known as..
139
Slow twitch fibers
Slower contraction
Their ATPase isoform is slower
140
Fast twitch fibers
Contract quickly bc of a faster ATPase isoform
Fibers fatigue quickly bc they can't metabolize aerobically but they do store lots of glycogen to metabolize anaerobically
141
Albumin
Maintains osmotic pressure
142
Hemoglobin
Carry O2 and CO2 gases
143
Immunoglobulin
Antibodies made by the immune system
| Help during a sickness
144
Fibrin
Needed for blood clotting
| A polymer that reinforces the plug and completes the clotting process
145
AV node
Smaller than the contractile cells and less effiicient in their transfer of the depolarization. delay for ~100mSec. delay allows atria to complete their contraction prior to the contraction of the ventricles.
146
Bundle of His
Electrical connection between the two regions of the heart (atria and ventricles)
147
SA node
heart's natural main pacemaker
consists of a cluster of cells that are situated in the upper part of the wall of the right atrium (the right upper chamber of the heart). The electrical impulses are generated there.
also called the sinus node
148
Bundle branches
offshoots of the bundle of His in the heart's ventricle. They
play an integral role in the electrical conduction system of the heart by transmitting cardiac action potentials from the bundle of His to the Purkinje fibers
149
Purkinje fibers
function is to send nerve impulses to the cells in the ventricles of the heart and cause them to contract and pump blood either to the lungs or the rest of the body.
150
P wave
Atria depolarize
151
QRS complex
Ventricles depolarize
152
T wave
Ventricles repolarize
153
Arteries
Carry blood away from the heart
154
Veins
Carry blood toward the heart
155
What causes the AV valves to close?
The atria contract to pump remaining blood into ventricles.
The higher the volume in the ventricles and thus higher pressure closes the valves shut
156
AV valves
Prevent backflow into atria when ventricles contract
157
What causes the semilunar valves to shut?
The ventricles contract to pump remaining blood.
The higher the volume and pressure in the arteries closes the valves shut
158
Semilunar valves
Prevent backflow into the ventricles when the ventricles relax
159
Lymphatic circulation
The lymph travels through lymphatic vessels and then bugger lymphatic ducts that propel the lymph back to the heart, where it rejoins blood at the level of the right and left subclavian valves
On the way there the WBCs in the lymph nodes screen lymph for pathogens
160
Stroke volume
The ejection fraction is about 60% of the end diastolic volume
The higher the end diastolic volume the higher the contractility thus higher stroke volume
Nervous system can extrinsically regulate stroke volume by increasing contractility. Contractile myocardiocytes receive sympathetic inner atom
Factors that increase venous pressure or volume increase venous return which increase EDV
The higher the pre-load (EDV) the higher the stroke volume
The after load can decrease stroke volume
Higher blood volume increases stroke volume, the body regulates blood volume as a way we regulate cardiac output
161
Blood resistance
Longer vessel=more viscous blood
Smaller radius vessel=higher resistance
Ln/ r4
162
Myogenic control
Resistance vessels vasodilator to increase perfusion (blood flow) if pressure is low
Or vasoconstrict to prevent the vessel from rupturing if pressure goes up
163
Innate immunity
Innate meaning were born with it and it's nonspecific in that it goes after everything that is non-self
164
Adaptive immunity
It is adaptive (learned from exposure to specific pathogen) and it is specific (attacks specific pathogens) and it is mediated by lymphocytes
165
External defenses
Skin:serves as a physical barrier and secretes lysozymes
Digestive tract:gastric acid kill pathogens and beneficial colon bacteria compete to outnumber pathogenic bacteria
Genitourinary tract:urine and vaginal pH are slightly acidic to kill pathogens
Respiratory tract: epithelial cells have Cilia and secrete mucus your push pathogens up and out of the tract through nose and mouth
166
Internal defenses
Phagocytosis: cells that help fight infection
Interferons: family of protein, some of which are made by virus infected cells to warn other cells of impending viral attack
Endogenous pyrogen: molecules secreted by WBCs in response to bacterial toxins, cause fever that speed up recovery
Complement: enhance he immune system
Inflammation: innate response to harmful stimuli like pathogens or damaged cells
167
Humoral or antibody mediated
Secrete antibodies, humoral or antibody mediated, attack invaders outside of the cell, attack bacteria and some viruses from a distance
168
Cell mediated
Attack inside the cell
Virus infected, fungus, cancerous, organ transplant
Direct cell to cell combat
169
Primary response
Immune response that occurs when naive B or T cells are activated
170
Secondary response
```
When the memory cells are activated
Memory cells also divide faster and are longer lived
They are more effective
IgM primary
IgG secondary
```
171
Passive immunity
the short-term immunity that results from the introduction of antibodies from another person or animal.
172
Active immunity
the immunity that results from the production of antibodies by the immune system in response to the presence of an antigen.
173
Ventilation
Mechanical process of inhaling and exhaling
174
O2
2% dissolved in plasma
| 98% transported bound to hemoglobin as oxyhemoglobin
175
CO2
10% dissolved in plasma
20% bound to hemoglobin as carbaminohemoglobin
70% reacts chemically with water to form carbonic acid which becomes bicarbonate ion
176
Loading
Loading of O2 onto hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin
177
Unloading
Refers to unloading of O2 from hemoglobin to form deoxyhemoglobin
178
At tissues an increase in pCO2 and decrease in pO2 in blood favor...
Unloading
179
At lungs an increase in pO2 and decrease in pCO2 in blood plasma favor
Loading
180
Ph decrease
Hyperventilating
181
Ph basic
Hypoventilation
182
Function of the kidneys
Volume (pressure)
pH
Wastes
Electrolytes
183
Nephrons
Filter blood then modify the filtrate producing urine that is drained into the ureter
184
Ureter
Transport urine to the urinary bladder where it's stored until micurition
185
Glomerulus
Blood is filtered by this and modified down the rest of the nephron and urine is collected by the collecting duct
186
ADH
Regulates high blood osmolality
Osmoreceptors sense this and makes an antidiuretic hormone, target cells in collecting ducts make more aquaporin channels to increase water reabsorption (so you retain water bringing osmolality back down to its set point
187
Aldosterone
Low blood volume but normal osmolality
Aldosterone tells kidneys to reabsorb salt and when salt is reabsorbed water follows via osmosis
Granular cells sense low blood flow in afferent arteriole which stimulates them to secrete renin into the blood (mascula densa cells are what tell granular cells to do this)
188
ANP
When blood volume (pressure) is high
Stretch receptors in left atrium stretch more which causes...
The heart to tell the brain to tell the kidneys to decrease ADH secretion
The LA of the heart to secrets ANP which tells kidneys to extreme Na+ (therefore water too)
189
How do kidneys regulate alkalosis?
Less HCO3 and more H+
Reabsorb less HCO3 and secrete less H+
190
How do kidneys regulate acidosis?
More HCO3 and less H+
Reabsorb more HCO3 and secrete more H+
191
Organs part of GI tract
Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anal canal, anus
192
Accessory organs
Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
193
Digests starch
Salivary amylase, pancreatic amylase, brush border enzymes
194
Small intestine
Digest proteins
195
Duodenum
Fat digestion
196
Gallbladder
Stores and concentrates bile made by liver
197
Liver
Makes bile
Detoxifies blood
Regulates level of fuel molecules in blood
Makes plasma proteins
198
Exocrine portion of the pancreas
Secrete pancreatic juice
199
How are testes and ovaries determined?
TDF
200
Leptin
A hormone secreted by adipocytes is required for the onset of puberty
Exercise may inhibit it
More active slimmer girls start puberty later
201
What processes do FSH and LH secretions stimulate in puberty ?
Tells gonads to start gametogenesis
Spermatogenesis: production of sperm
Oogenesis: production of oocytes or eggs
202
When and where does spermatogenesis happen?
seminiferous tubules
At puberty
203
Spermatogonium
cell produced at an early stage in the formation of spermatozoa, formed in the wall of a seminiferous tubule and giving rise by mitosis to spermatocytes.
204
Primary and secondary spermatocyte
Primary spermatocytes are diploid (2N) cells containing 46 chromosomes.
After Meiosis I, two secondary spermatocytes are formed. Secondary spermatocytes are haploid (N) cells that contain 23 chromosomes.
205
Spermatid
an immature male sex cell formed from a spermatocyte that can develop into a spermatozoon without further division
206
Spermatozoon
the mature motile male sex cell of an animal, by which the ovum is fertilized, typically having a compact head and one or more long flagella for swimming.
207
Spermatogenesis
is the final stage of spermatogenesis, which sees the maturation of spermatids into mature, motile spermatozoa. The spermatid is a more or less circular cell containing a nucleus, Golgi apparatus, centriole and mitochondria.
208
What are the 4 categories of action that testosterone and it's androgen derivatives mediate?
Sex determination
Spermatogenesis
Secondary sex characteristics
Anabolic effects
209
Ovarian cycle
Refers to what happens in the ovaries every month after the onset of puberty
210
Follicular phase
FSH follicle stimulating hormone stimulates growth of some primary follicles which become secondary follicles
Secrete estrogen
Days 1-14
211
Ovulation
Ovulation is the release of egg from the ovaries. In humans, this event occurs when the de Graaf's follicles rupture and release the secondary oocyte ovarian cells.
Day 14
212
Luteal phase
occurs after ovulation (when your ovaries release an egg) and before your period starts. During this time, the lining of your uterus normally gets thicker to prepare for a possible pregnancy.
Secretes estrogen and progesterone which causes it to thicken
213
Oogonium
46 chromosomes
214
Primary oocyte
46 chromosomes
| In primary and secondary follicles
215
secondary oocyte
23 chromosomes
In Graffian follicle
216
Polar body
each of the small cells that bud off from an oocyte at the two meiotic divisions and do not develop into ova.
217
Zygote
a diploid cell resulting from the fusion of two haploid gametes; a fertilized ovum.
