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Final Physiology > Final > Flashcards

Final Flashcards

1
Q

Define physiology

A

Function, how body structures work

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2
Q

Four primary tissues

A

Muscle: movement

Nervous: control

Epithelial: cover, protect

Connective: support, connect

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3
Q

Muscular tissue

A

Skeletal: attached to skeleton to move bones at will, voluntary, cells are long and cylindrical, striated, multi nucleated

Cardiac: involuntary, found only in heart
Striated, smaller than skeletal, branched, intercalated discs that connect cells so they contract as one

Smooth: involuntary, non striated (smooth), smaller than skeletal, in GI tract, eyes, uterus, smaller arteries

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4
Q

Nervous tissue

A

Neurons: fast communication

Glia: help neurons do their job

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5
Q

Epithelial tissue

A

Membranes: cover body and organs and line the inside of hollow organs
Like sheets bc they’re tightly bound

Glands: derived from membranes

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6
Q

Characteristics of epithelial tissue

A

Have polarity

Apical surface: exterior open space

Basal surface: attached to substratum

Non vascularized

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7
Q

What are epithelial tissue cells classified as?

A

Squamous

Cuboidal

Columnar

Simple
Stratified

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8
Q

Squamous

A

Flattened and scale like

Nucleus flattened

For rapid diffusion in lungs

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9
Q

Cuboidal

A

Boxlike

Nucleus round

Secretion or absorption in kidney tubules

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10
Q

Columnar

A

Tall; column shaped

Nucleus elongated

For absorption in gut

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11
Q

Simple

A

One layer

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12
Q

Stratified

A

More than one laying of cells

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13
Q

Basement membrane

A

Thick separation between two types of tissue made of extra cellular molecules that cells of tissue on either side secrete

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14
Q

Gland

A

One or more cells that makes and secretes an aqueous fluid:secretion

Unicellular: goblet cells

Multicellular

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15
Q

Endocrine glands

A

Ductless, release into bloodstream

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16
Q

Exocrine

A

Have ducts, release outside of body or into into cavity of hollow organ

Sweat, salivary, mucous, oil glands

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17
Q

Connective tissue

A

Most abundant of primary tissues

Relatively few cells in a sea of matrix made of protein fibers collagen and elastin and interstitial fluid

Vascularized except for cartilage

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18
Q

Collagen fibers

A

Like a rope for strength and cushioning

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19
Q

Elastic fibers

A

For elasticity

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20
Q

Connective tissue proper

A

Fibroblast/cyte (cyte=mature)

Extra cellular matrix is gel like

Can be loose (areolar, adipose, riticular) or dense (regular, irregular, elastic)

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21
Q

Loose connective tissue areolar

A

Loosely arranged collagen and elastic fibers

Packaging tissue: wraps and cushions organs

Areolar refers to open spaces between fibers

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22
Q

Loose connective tissue proper adipose

A

Fat tissue

Adipocytes store fat molecules as fuel reserve

Insulated against heat loss and supports and protects organs

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23
Q

Dense connective tissue proper regular

A

Collagen fibers arranged parallel in order to resist stress when pulled from ONE direction

Found in tendons and ligaments

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24
Q

Dense connective tissue proper irregular

A

Arranged irregularly to resist stress in ANY direction

Dermis of skin cancer

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25
Q

Cartilage

A

Chondroblasts/cytes

Gel like matrix to resist compression

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26
Q

Hyaline cartilage

A

Amorphous but firm matrix

In embryonic skeleton, nose, ribs, trachea, larynx

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27
Q

Elastic cartilage

A

Elastic matrix

Outer ear, epiglottis

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28
Q

Fibrocartilage

A

Fibrous (more thick collagen fibers)

More fibrous to be a better shock absorber

I’m intervertebral discs, knee joint

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29
Q

Bone

A

Osteoblasts/cytes/clasts

Gel like matrix but hardened w calcium salts

Spongy bone and compact bone

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30
Q

Spongy bone

A

Space between red bone marrow, where blood cells are born

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31
Q

Compact bone

A

Minerals like calcium stored here, harden bone

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32
Q

Blood

A

Erythrocytes(RBC)
Leukocytes(WBC)
Platelets

Matrix in liquid plasma to carry molecules throughout the body like nutrients, wastes, and respiratory gases

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33
Q

Homeostasis

A

Dynamic constancy of the internal environment

Ex: body temp constant at 37 degrees C

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34
Q

Negative feedback

A

Go in opposite direction if stimulus

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35
Q

Positive feedback

A

Go in same direction as stimulus

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36
Q

Negative feedback example

A

If body temp falls above or below normal

Sensor: senses this stimulus (hypothalamus in brain)

Integrating center: integrates sensory info and alerts effector (hypothalamus in brain)

Effector: effects a response (sweat glands secrete sweat to cool) (skeletal muscles contract to shiver and generate heat)

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37
Q

pH

A

A measure of the concentration of H+ (hydrogen ions or protons) in an aqueous solution

7 neutral
Below 7 acidic
Above 7 basic or alkaline

Scale is logarithmic

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38
Q

NonPolar molecules

A

Charges equally distributed

CH4

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39
Q

Polar molecules

A

Partial negative and partial positive

Unequal

NH3

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40
Q

Hydrolysis

A

If cells are hungry they can hydrolysis glycogen and feed monosaccharides to cells

Hydro (water) lyse (break off units)

One disaccharide–> 2 monosaccharides (carbs)

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41
Q

Triglycerides

A

1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids= 1 triglyceride

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42
Q

Plasma membrane

A

Phospholipid bilayer: phosphor heads polar, fatty acid tails nonpolar, desperate in from out of cell

Bilayer is fluid so proteins can move along its plane

Cholesterol (yellow) makes membrane more rigid

Proteins (purple) communicate signals in and out of cell(integral), can be structural, receptors, enzymes, transporters

Carbohydrates (green) on outer surface only and involved in cell-cell recognition and cell signaling

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43
Q

Lysosomes

A

Organelles that digest

Have digestive enzymes and acidic pH to help digest

Food vacuoles: engulf food and fuse with lysosomes

Autophagosomes: engulf dead organelles and fuse with lysosomes to have organelles recycled

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44
Q

Process of making a protein

A

Transcribed into mRNA (copy of the gene made in the nucleus)

mRNA leaves nucleus through nuclear pores and comes across a ribosome where the message is TRANSLATED into a polypeptide

After the transcript(mRNA) is made TRANSFER RNA (tRNA) read the transcript code and transfer the amino acid to the growing polypeptide chain

Once the polypeptide is made it only has primary structure so it must be further processed and folded to become functional (first happens in ROUGH ER)

From rough ER the polypeptide is transported to the GOLGI COMPLEX to be further processed and sent to its final destination
If it’s a secreted protein it makes it to the plasma membrane

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45
Q

Chromatin remodeling

A

Not all genes are turned on (made into protein) all the time. One way to regulate which genes are turned on or off is by this

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46
Q

Euchromatin

A

DNA loosely wound so easily turned on

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47
Q

Heterochromatin

A

Tightly wound so not easily turned on

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48
Q

RNA interference

A

Cells must regulate how much protein to make at a given time, by upregulating or downregulating gene expression

Downregulating is an example of this
Small pieces of RNA bind to mRNA to block transcription

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49
Q

Alternative splicing

A

Human proteome has more proteins than we do genes bc of this

After transcript is made introns are removed and exons spliced back together and this allows for >1 protein per gene

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50
Q

Enzymes

A

Molecules the speed up chemical reactions by energizing reactants, thus lowering the activation energy of the chemical reaction

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51
Q

Kinases

A

Add phosphate groups

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52
Q

Phophatases

A

Remove phosphate groups

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53
Q

Synthases

A

Dehydration synthesis

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54
Q

Hydrolases

A

Hydrolysis

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55
Q

Dehydrogenases

A

Remove hydrogen atoms

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56
Q

Isomerases

A

Rearrange atoms

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57
Q

What factors affect enzymatic activity and how?

A

Temperature (optimal temp)

pH (optimal pH)

Concentration of enzyme and substrate
(The more substrate the higher the enzymatic activity, faster the reaction rate)

Concentration of cofactors (metal ions like Ca, Mg, Mn, Cu, Zn) and coenzymes(organic molecules that transport hydrogen atoms and small molecules between enzymes (all Help enzymes)

Products of reaction (reduce and oxidizing)

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58
Q

Endergonic reactions

A

Requires and input of energy to synthesize like molecules

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59
Q

Exergonic reactions

A

Releases energy by breaking down large molecules into small

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60
Q

Respiration of glucose

A

Glucose is first energized with 2 ATPs then metabolized to yield 2 molecules of pyruvic acid

A net of 2 ATP is produced

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61
Q

Respiration of glucose anaerobic

A

Referred to as lactic acid fermentation

Wo O2 pyruvic acid cannot be further metabolized but NADH must regenerate which it does by reducing pyruvic acid to lactic acid

Pyruvic acid is the final electron acceptor

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62
Q

Respiration of glucose aerobic

A

Pyruvic acid enters the mitochondrial on and is converted to acetyl CoA

Next acetyl CoA enters the citric acid (krebs cycle) where it is completely metabolized

From each of the 2 acetyl CoA one ATP as product and two CO2 as byproduct

The electrons carried by NADH and FADH2 are then transported via redox reactions through a series of molecules (ETC) in the inner mitochondrial membrane (this releases energy that’s used to pump protons H+ up a concentration gradient)

The protons then move back to matrix through the channel protein ATP synthase

This movement down the concentration gradient releases energy that is used to add phosphates to ADPs and make about 30ATPS

The protons and electrons combine w O2 (the final electron acceptor) to form water the other biproduct of cellular respiration

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63
Q

Glycogenesis

A

Glucose that does not enter glycolysis can be stored as glycogen through this process

Stored in skeletal muscle and to a lesser extent cardiac muscle and liver store more

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64
Q

Glycogenolysis

A

If glucose is needed cells perform this process to break down glycogen

Liver has enzymes for this

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65
Q

Molecules that freely diffuse across membrane

A

Hydrophobic molecules

Non polar like steroids or O2

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66
Q

Molecules that can’t freely diffuse across membrane

A

Hydrophilic molecules and inorganic ions(ca, na, cl)

They need channel or carrier to help them

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67
Q

Passive transport

A

Doesn’t require energy

Exergonic

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68
Q

Active transport

A

Requires energy

Bc pumping molecules up concentration gradient is endergonic

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69
Q

Primary active transport

A

The pump (carrier protein) is an ATPase. When ATP is hydrolyzed the energy released is used to pump molecules up their concentration gradient

Ca+ pump
Na/K+ pump

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70
Q

Secondary active transport (coupled transport)

A

Diffusion of Na+ into the cell releases energy that is then used to pump a molecule or ion

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71
Q

What types of cells are excitable?

A

Neurons, cardiac, and skeletal muscle cells

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72
Q

Resting membrane potential

A

Vm at rest cells are not excited

But when excited cells conduct impulse or AP that accumulates a cellular response ex a muscle cell contracts

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73
Q

Paracrine signaling

A

Target cells are nearby so signaling molecule diffuses to target

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74
Q

Synaptic signaling

A

Communication happens at synapse, special connection between neuron and another cells

Neurotransmitter is the signaling molecule

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75
Q

Endocrine signaling

A

Target cell is far away so the signaling molecule, the hormone, enters the bloodstream

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76
Q

CNS

A

Brain and spinal cord

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77
Q

PNS

A

Nerves and their ganglia

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78
Q

Sensory (input) PNS and Motor (output) PNS

A

Sensory PNS senses incoming info from outside or inside of body and sends it to CNS

CNS integrates input and tells motor PNS how to respond

Motor PNS (output) responds

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79
Q

Sensory or afferent

A

Nerves send signals from both outside and inside of body to CNS

5 senses
From skin or tendons (are u sitting up straight?)
Internal organs

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80
Q

Motor or efferent

A

Nerves send signals from CNS to effector organs which effect a response

Somatic
Autonomic

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81
Q

Somatic

A

Voluntary control

Skeletal muscles

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82
Q

Autonomic

A

Involuntary control

Smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands

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83
Q

Parts of a neuron

A

Dendrites: receive incoming info

Cell body:nucleus and integrates info

Axons: conduct impulses or AP

Axon hillock

Node of ranvier

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84
Q

White matter

A

Myelinated axons appear whitish

So axonal tracts are this

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85
Q

Gray matter

A

Areas with cell bodies that are darker

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86
Q

Schwann cells

A

Surround and myelinate axons

Myelin sheath: wraps around many times on bigger axons increasing speed of conduction

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87
Q

Satellite cells

A

Support cell bodies

88
Q

Ependymal cells

A

Like cavities of the brain and spinal cord

89
Q

Microglia

A

Play an immune function in the CNS

When activated can phagocytose

90
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

Myelinate SEVERAL axons

91
Q

Astrocytes

A

Most abundant type of glia

Help recycle neurotransmitters

Pick up glucose from blood and turn it into lactic acid and pass it on to neurons which can use it to metabolize aerobically

92
Q

How does myelin affect the speed of action of an AP

A

Faster bc ions enter or leave the cell only at the nodes of Ranvier. The AP therefore jumps for node to node

93
Q

Frontal lobe

A

Controls voluntary movement

Higher intellectual processes

94
Q

Somatosensory cortex

A

Integrates cutaneous (from skin) and propioceptive (about self) info from muscles, tendons, and joint receptors then communicates this processed info to the primary motor cortex from where voluntary muscles are controlled

95
Q

Pre central gyrus

A

Producing and coordinating movement

96
Q

Limbic system

A

Emotional drives

97
Q

Pineal gland

A

Secretes the hormone melatonin which regulates sleep-wake cycles

98
Q

Thalamus

A

The gateway to the cerebral cortex bc it serves as a relay center for all sensory info(except olfactory) coming into the cortex

99
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Main visceral control center

Regulates autonomic processes like body temp and food and water intake

Itself a giant, regulates the pituitary gland(the master gland) that in turn regulates endocrine glands throughout the body

Heart of the limbic system

100
Q

Midbrain

A

Has

Substantia nigra: project to basal nuclei and are the ones that die in Parkinson’s

Ventral tegmental area: project to several areas of the limbic system and involved in behavioral reward and drug addictions

101
Q

Medulla

A

Viral respiratory centers

Regulate muscles of our ribs responsible for breathing(so we don’t stop)

Has vital centers that regulate autonomic control of the heart and blood vessels

102
Q

Reflex arc

A

Receptor

Sensory neuron

Interneurons

Motor neuron

Effector

103
Q

Reflex

A

Unconscious motor response to a sensory stimulus

104
Q

Monosynaptic reflex

A

Involves only a sensory and motor neuron(knee jerk reflex)

105
Q

Polysynaptic reflex

A

May or may not involve the brain

106
Q

Spinal reflex

A

involve more than one synapse

an example is the withdrawal reflex of the hand from a painful stimulus (such as fire)

107
Q

Cranial reflex

A

mediated by pathways in the cranial nerves and brain; examples are the blinking and swallowing reflexes

108
Q

Sympathetic preganglionic neurons

A

Arise in T1-L2

109
Q

Paravertebral (sympathetic)

A

Make up the sympathetic chain of ganglia and are parallel w the vertebrae

110
Q

Collateral (sympathetic)

A

Closer to the effector organ

111
Q

Adrenal medulla (sympathetic)

A

Acts as a collateral ganglion too

112
Q

Adrenal medulla (parasympathetic)

A

Derived from the neural crest (nervous tissue)

Nervous function

Secretes hormones into the blood, so it’s effector organs are found throughout the body

113
Q

Terminal ganglia (parasympathetic)

A

Very close or within the effector organ

114
Q

postganglionic neurotransmitters

A

Sympathetic: NE both

Parasympathetic: ACh (excitatory)

Adrenal medulla(into blood): E but also some NE both

115
Q

Cocaine and amphetamines

A

Sympathomimetic (mimic sympathetic system)

Inhibit NE reuptake by MAO

116
Q

Beta blockers

A

Sympathetic

Block b1

Treat hypertension

117
Q

Albuterol

A

Sympathetic

Stimulates B2

Treat asthma opens up airways

118
Q

Atropine

A

Parasympathetic

Blocks mAChR

Dilate pupils during eye exams

119
Q

A1

A

Vasoconstriction in viscera and skin

120
Q

B1

A

Increased heart rate and contractility

121
Q

B2

A

Dilation of bronchioles and blood vessels

122
Q

Hormones

A

Help regulate body metabolism, growth, and reproduction

123
Q

What organs secrete hormones?

A

Heart

Liver

Kidneys

White adipose tissue

Hypothalamus

124
Q

Where are target cells?

A

In the blood

125
Q

T4 and T3

A

T4 is a prehormone

Within the target cell, an iodine is removed converting it to T3 the active form

126
Q

Insulin

A

Binds to a tyrosine kinase receptor. Ligand binding causes the receptor to autophosphorylate . Now active, the receptor starts phosphorylating other substrates

127
Q

Cortisol

A

Helps with recovery from acute stress( illness)

128
Q

Fascicles

A

Bundles of muscle cells

129
Q

Motor unit

A

The smallest functional unit of muscle contraction

130
Q

Neuromuscular junction

A

Innervates muscle contraction

131
Q

Sarcomere

A

From z disc to z disc

The contractile unit of the cell

Made of thick and thin filaments

Thin: actin

Thick: myosin

132
Q

Increasing the voltage after you can see a muscle twitch will cause even more muscle fibers to contract and therefore a stronger what?

A

Grades muscle contraction

133
Q

Maximal contraction

A

All muscle fibers contract

Stimulus 7

134
Q

Complete tetanus

A

When you’re at a high enough frequency that the muscle has less time to relax or doesn’t relax at all

135
Q

Fatigue

A

When the muscle can no longer maintain contraction

136
Q

Vo2 max or max rate of O2 consumption

A

You hit this at some point as you make ATP aerobically during moderate or heavy exercise

137
Q

Oxygen debt

A

When you breath heavily during moderate/heavy exercise into to pay this back

138
Q

Anaerobic threshold

A

Before you hit your VO2 max, usually you’re at 50-70% of your max, your muscles start fermenting glucose from glycogen stores

This is known as..

139
Q

Slow twitch fibers

A

Slower contraction

Their ATPase isoform is slower

140
Q

Fast twitch fibers

A

Contract quickly bc of a faster ATPase isoform

Fibers fatigue quickly bc they can’t metabolize aerobically but they do store lots of glycogen to metabolize anaerobically

141
Q

Albumin

A

Maintains osmotic pressure

142
Q

Hemoglobin

A

Carry O2 and CO2 gases

143
Q

Immunoglobulin

A

Antibodies made by the immune system

Help during a sickness

144
Q

Fibrin

A

Needed for blood clotting

A polymer that reinforces the plug and completes the clotting process

145
Q

AV node

A

Smaller than the contractile cells and less effiicient in their transfer of the depolarization. delay for ~100mSec. delay allows atria to complete their contraction prior to the contraction of the ventricles.

146
Q

Bundle of His

A

Electrical connection between the two regions of the heart (atria and ventricles)

147
Q

SA node

A

heart’s natural main pacemaker

consists of a cluster of cells that are situated in the upper part of the wall of the right atrium (the right upper chamber of the heart). The electrical impulses are generated there.

also called the sinus node

148
Q

Bundle branches

A

offshoots of the bundle of His in the heart’s ventricle. They

play an integral role in the electrical conduction system of the heart by transmitting cardiac action potentials from the bundle of His to the Purkinje fibers

149
Q

Purkinje fibers

A

function is to send nerve impulses to the cells in the ventricles of the heart and cause them to contract and pump blood either to the lungs or the rest of the body.

150
Q

P wave

A

Atria depolarize

151
Q

QRS complex

A

Ventricles depolarize

152
Q

T wave

A

Ventricles repolarize

153
Q

Arteries

A

Carry blood away from the heart

154
Q

Veins

A

Carry blood toward the heart

155
Q

What causes the AV valves to close?

A

The atria contract to pump remaining blood into ventricles.

The higher the volume in the ventricles and thus higher pressure closes the valves shut

156
Q

AV valves

A

Prevent backflow into atria when ventricles contract

157
Q

What causes the semilunar valves to shut?

A

The ventricles contract to pump remaining blood.

The higher the volume and pressure in the arteries closes the valves shut

158
Q

Semilunar valves

A

Prevent backflow into the ventricles when the ventricles relax

159
Q

Lymphatic circulation

A

The lymph travels through lymphatic vessels and then bugger lymphatic ducts that propel the lymph back to the heart, where it rejoins blood at the level of the right and left subclavian valves

On the way there the WBCs in the lymph nodes screen lymph for pathogens

160
Q

Stroke volume

A

The ejection fraction is about 60% of the end diastolic volume

The higher the end diastolic volume the higher the contractility thus higher stroke volume

Nervous system can extrinsically regulate stroke volume by increasing contractility. Contractile myocardiocytes receive sympathetic inner atom

Factors that increase venous pressure or volume increase venous return which increase EDV

The higher the pre-load (EDV) the higher the stroke volume

The after load can decrease stroke volume

Higher blood volume increases stroke volume, the body regulates blood volume as a way we regulate cardiac output

161
Q

Blood resistance

A

Longer vessel=more viscous blood

Smaller radius vessel=higher resistance

Ln/ r4

162
Q

Myogenic control

A

Resistance vessels vasodilator to increase perfusion (blood flow) if pressure is low

Or vasoconstrict to prevent the vessel from rupturing if pressure goes up

163
Q

Innate immunity

A

Innate meaning were born with it and it’s nonspecific in that it goes after everything that is non-self

164
Q

Adaptive immunity

A

It is adaptive (learned from exposure to specific pathogen) and it is specific (attacks specific pathogens) and it is mediated by lymphocytes

165
Q

External defenses

A

Skin:serves as a physical barrier and secretes lysozymes
Digestive tract:gastric acid kill pathogens and beneficial colon bacteria compete to outnumber pathogenic bacteria
Genitourinary tract:urine and vaginal pH are slightly acidic to kill pathogens
Respiratory tract: epithelial cells have Cilia and secrete mucus your push pathogens up and out of the tract through nose and mouth

166
Q

Internal defenses

A

Phagocytosis: cells that help fight infection

Interferons: family of protein, some of which are made by virus infected cells to warn other cells of impending viral attack

Endogenous pyrogen: molecules secreted by WBCs in response to bacterial toxins, cause fever that speed up recovery

Complement: enhance he immune system

Inflammation: innate response to harmful stimuli like pathogens or damaged cells

167
Q

Humoral or antibody mediated

A

Secrete antibodies, humoral or antibody mediated, attack invaders outside of the cell, attack bacteria and some viruses from a distance

168
Q

Cell mediated

A

Attack inside the cell

Virus infected, fungus, cancerous, organ transplant

Direct cell to cell combat

169
Q

Primary response

A

Immune response that occurs when naive B or T cells are activated

170
Q

Secondary response

A 
When the memory cells are activated 
Memory cells also divide faster and are longer lived 
They are more effective 
IgM primary 
IgG secondary
171
Q

Passive immunity

A

the short-term immunity that results from the introduction of antibodies from another person or animal.

172
Q

Active immunity

A

the immunity that results from the production of antibodies by the immune system in response to the presence of an antigen.

173
Q

Ventilation

A

Mechanical process of inhaling and exhaling

174
Q

O2

A

2% dissolved in plasma

98% transported bound to hemoglobin as oxyhemoglobin

175
Q

CO2

A

10% dissolved in plasma

20% bound to hemoglobin as carbaminohemoglobin

70% reacts chemically with water to form carbonic acid which becomes bicarbonate ion

176
Q

Loading

A

Loading of O2 onto hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin

177
Q

Unloading

A

Refers to unloading of O2 from hemoglobin to form deoxyhemoglobin

178
Q

At tissues an increase in pCO2 and decrease in pO2 in blood favor…

A

Unloading

179
Q

At lungs an increase in pO2 and decrease in pCO2 in blood plasma favor

A

Loading

180
Q

Ph decrease

A

Hyperventilating

181
Q

Ph basic

A

Hypoventilation

182
Q

Function of the kidneys

A

Volume (pressure)

pH

Wastes

Electrolytes

183
Q

Nephrons

A

Filter blood then modify the filtrate producing urine that is drained into the ureter

184
Q

Ureter

A

Transport urine to the urinary bladder where it’s stored until micurition

185
Q

Glomerulus

A

Blood is filtered by this and modified down the rest of the nephron and urine is collected by the collecting duct

186
Q

ADH

A

Regulates high blood osmolality

Osmoreceptors sense this and makes an antidiuretic hormone, target cells in collecting ducts make more aquaporin channels to increase water reabsorption (so you retain water bringing osmolality back down to its set point

187
Q

Aldosterone

A

Low blood volume but normal osmolality

Aldosterone tells kidneys to reabsorb salt and when salt is reabsorbed water follows via osmosis

Granular cells sense low blood flow in afferent arteriole which stimulates them to secrete renin into the blood (mascula densa cells are what tell granular cells to do this)

188
Q

ANP

A

When blood volume (pressure) is high

Stretch receptors in left atrium stretch more which causes…

The heart to tell the brain to tell the kidneys to decrease ADH secretion

The LA of the heart to secrets ANP which tells kidneys to extreme Na+ (therefore water too)

189
Q

How do kidneys regulate alkalosis?

A

Less HCO3 and more H+

Reabsorb less HCO3 and secrete less H+

190
Q

How do kidneys regulate acidosis?

A

More HCO3 and less H+

Reabsorb more HCO3 and secrete more H+

191
Q

Organs part of GI tract

A

Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anal canal, anus

192
Q

Accessory organs

A

Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

193
Q

Digests starch

A

Salivary amylase, pancreatic amylase, brush border enzymes

194
Q

Small intestine

A

Digest proteins

195
Q

Duodenum

A

Fat digestion

196
Q

Gallbladder

A

Stores and concentrates bile made by liver

197
Q

Liver

A

Makes bile

Detoxifies blood

Regulates level of fuel molecules in blood

Makes plasma proteins

198
Q

Exocrine portion of the pancreas

A

Secrete pancreatic juice

199
Q

How are testes and ovaries determined?

A

TDF

200
Q

Leptin

A

A hormone secreted by adipocytes is required for the onset of puberty

Exercise may inhibit it

More active slimmer girls start puberty later

201
Q

What processes do FSH and LH secretions stimulate in puberty ?

A

Tells gonads to start gametogenesis

Spermatogenesis: production of sperm

Oogenesis: production of oocytes or eggs

202
Q

When and where does spermatogenesis happen?

A

seminiferous tubules

At puberty

203
Q

Spermatogonium

A

cell produced at an early stage in the formation of spermatozoa, formed in the wall of a seminiferous tubule and giving rise by mitosis to spermatocytes.

204
Q

Primary and secondary spermatocyte

A

Primary spermatocytes are diploid (2N) cells containing 46 chromosomes.

After Meiosis I, two secondary spermatocytes are formed. Secondary spermatocytes are haploid (N) cells that contain 23 chromosomes.

205
Q

Spermatid

A

an immature male sex cell formed from a spermatocyte that can develop into a spermatozoon without further division

206
Q

Spermatozoon

A

the mature motile male sex cell of an animal, by which the ovum is fertilized, typically having a compact head and one or more long flagella for swimming.

207
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

is the final stage of spermatogenesis, which sees the maturation of spermatids into mature, motile spermatozoa. The spermatid is a more or less circular cell containing a nucleus, Golgi apparatus, centriole and mitochondria.

208
Q

What are the 4 categories of action that testosterone and it’s androgen derivatives mediate?

A

Sex determination

Spermatogenesis

Secondary sex characteristics

Anabolic effects

209
Q

Ovarian cycle

A

Refers to what happens in the ovaries every month after the onset of puberty

210
Q

Follicular phase

A

FSH follicle stimulating hormone stimulates growth of some primary follicles which become secondary follicles

Secrete estrogen

Days 1-14

211
Q

Ovulation

A

Ovulation is the release of egg from the ovaries. In humans, this event occurs when the de Graaf’s follicles rupture and release the secondary oocyte ovarian cells.

Day 14

212
Q

Luteal phase

A

occurs after ovulation (when your ovaries release an egg) and before your period starts. During this time, the lining of your uterus normally gets thicker to prepare for a possible pregnancy.

Secretes estrogen and progesterone which causes it to thicken

213
Q

Oogonium

A

46 chromosomes

214
Q

Primary oocyte

A

46 chromosomes

In primary and secondary follicles

215
Q

secondary oocyte

A

23 chromosomes

In Graffian follicle

216
Q

Polar body

A

each of the small cells that bud off from an oocyte at the two meiotic divisions and do not develop into ova.

217
Q

Zygote

A

a diploid cell resulting from the fusion of two haploid gametes; a fertilized ovum.

Final Physiology (1 decks)

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