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Final Anatomy & Physiology Exam > Final > Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the three characteristics of the respiratory membrane?

A

Respiratory Membrane

  1. Thin Membrane
    1. _​_Simple squamous cell ET = quick exchange
  2. Macrophages
    1. _​_Eats pathogens (immunity)
  3. Surfactant-secreting cells
    1. _​_Function: lubrication
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2
Q

How does smoking affect the respiratory membrane?

A

Smoker’s Respiratory Membrane

  1. Smoking kills surfactant-secreting cells
    1. _​_No lubrication causes the alveoli to stick to each other
  2. Smoking kills macrophages
    1. _​_No immunity
  3. Smoking causes the thin membrane to thicken
    1. ​Thickening makes it harder to gasous exchange
    2. Harder to breathe
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3
Q

What is the function of the respiratory system?

A

Function of Respiratory System

  • Gas exchange (of the bloodstream and alveoli)
    • CO2 (out)
    • O2 (in)
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4
Q

What is inhalation?

A

Inhalation

  • The process of drawing in air and other substances into the airways and lungs
    • O2 in
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5
Q

What are the five steps of inhalation?

A

Inhalation (5) Steps

  1. Diaphragm moves down = contraction
  2. Increase in thoracic cavity space
    1. The chest is bigger in volume
    2. The lungs & thoracic cavity move as an unit due to visceral pleura
  3. Lungs expand
  4. Pressure decreases in the lungs
    1. ​Decrease in alveoli/air sacs
  5. Air moves out due to pressure gradient
    1. From high to low pressure
    2. Passive process
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6
Q

What is happening based on the relationship of volume and pressure?

Increase Volume = Decrease Pressure

A

Inhalation

Increase Volume = Decrease Pressure

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7
Q

What is exhalation?

A

Exhalation

  • The act of breathing out air from the lungs and airways
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8
Q

What are the five steps of exhalation?

A

Exhalation (5) Steps

  1. Diaphragm moves UP = relaxes
  2. Thoracic cavity gets smaller = decrease in volume
  3. Lungs get smaller (decrease)
  4. Pressure increases in alveoli
  5. Air moves OUT from high to low pressure due to pressure gradient
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9
Q

What is happening based on the relationship between volume and pressure?

Decrease Volume = Increase Pressure

A

Exhalation

Decrease Volume = Increase Pressure

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10
Q

What organs are involved in the pathway of inhalation?

A

Pathway of Inhalation

  1. (Start) Nose
  2. Pharynx
  3. Larynx
  4. Trachae
  5. Bronchi
  6. Lungs
  7. Alveoli (air sacs)
    1. Respiratory membrane
  8. (Finish) Capillaries = bloodstream
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11
Q

What is between the alveoli (air sacs) and capillaries (blood)?

A

Thin layer called the respiratory membrane

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12
Q

What is the relationship between the visceral pleura and the thoracic cavity?

A
  • The visceral pleura allows the thoracic cavity and the lungs to move as a unit
    • The visceral pleura adheres the lungs to the thoracic cavity via negative pressure
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13
Q

What are the three hormones of digestion?

A

(3) Hormones of Digestion

  1. Gastrin
  2. Secretin
  3. CCK (chole-cysto-kin-in)
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14
Q

What is the origin of gastrin?

A

Origin of Gastrin

  • Gastrin is made by the stomach
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15
Q

What is the target of gastrin?

A

Target of Gastrin

  • Gastrin targets the G & Chief cells in the stomach
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16
Q

What is known as the “stomach hormone”?

A

Gastrin = stomach hormone

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17
Q

What is the purpose of gastrin?

A

The purpose of gastrin is to increase HCl production

  • Increase HCl production:
    • Increase stomach acid & increase pepsin→
    • Increase stomach activity →
    • Opens pyloric sphincter (stomach is trying to empty faster)
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18
Q

What is the origin, target, & action of gastrin?

A

Gastrin

  1. Origin: stomach
  2. Target: G & Chief cells in stomach
  3. Action: Increase HCl production
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19
Q

What is the origin of secretin?

A

Origin of Secretin

  • Made in the SI (small intestine)
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20
Q

What is the target of secretin?

A

The target of secretin is the pancrease

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21
Q

What is the purpose of secretin?

A

The purpose of secretin:

Increase buffer released into the SI to reduce acidity

Makes the SI more basic & less acidic

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22
Q

What is the origin, target, & action of secretin?

A

Secretin

  • Origin: SI
  • Target: Pancreas
  • Action: Increases buffers to make the SI less acidic
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23
Q

What is the origin of CCK*?

CCK: chole-cysto-kin-in

A

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

  • Made by the small intestine (SI)
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24
Q

What is the target of *CCK?

*CCK: chole-cysto-kin-in

A

Cholecystokinin (CCK)’s target is the bile system

  • Bile helps to break down fat
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25
What is the **action** of \*CCK? \*CCK: chole-cysto-kin-in
Cholecystokinin (CCK)'s **action** is to **increase fat digestion:** * **Closes** the _pyloric sphincter_→**Stops _stomach activity_** * \*The _more fat_ in the diet = _longer for SI to empty_
26
What is the **origin, target, & action** of _CCK (cholecystokinin)?_
**CCK (cholecystokinin)** * Origin: SI * Target: bile system * Action: increase fat digestion to close pyloric sphincter to stop stomach activity
27
What are the **(4) phases/reflexes of digestion?**
**(4) Phases of Digestion** 1. Cephalic phase = **brain** 2. Gastric phase = **stomach** 3. Intestional phase = **small intestine** 4. Colic phase = **colon (large intestine)**
28
What is _occurring_ during the **cephalic phase?**
**Cephalic Phase** 1. "**Brain"** = sees, imagines, smells food 2. **Increase** in hunger 3. Starts **stomach activity** ("growling") 1. **Increase in gastrin** (tells the stomach "to go")
29
What _hormone_ is being used during the **cephalic phase?**
**Cephalic Phase** (brain) causes: * ***Increases*** _gastrin_ ⇒**Increases** stomach activity * Tells the stomach to "go" * **OPENS** pyloric sphincter
30
What is _occurring_ during the **gastric phase?**
**Gastric Phase** * **"Stomach"** = when you _eat_ food * **Increase gastrin→Increase stomach activity** * Increase in gastrin (tells the stomach "to go") * Causes **pyloric sphincter** to **OPEN**
31
What _hormone_ is being used during the **gastric phase?**
**Gastric Phase** (stomach) casuses: * **Increases** _gastrin_ ⇒**Increases** stomach activity * Tells the stomach to "go" * **OPENS** pyloric sphincter
32
What is _occurring_ during the **intestinal phase?**
**Intestinal Phase** 1. **"Entrails/Small instestines"** → Chyme enters from stomach 2. **Decreases/ STOPS** stomach activity by: 1. Secreting **increase** _secretin_ 2. Secreting **increase** _CCK_ for **increase** _bile_ 3. **Food absorption** → **Closes** pyloric sphincter
33
What _hormones_ are used during the **intestinal phase?**
**Intestinal Phase (SI) casuses:** * **Increases** _secretin_ ⇒**Decreases** stomach activity * Tells the stomach to "**STOP**" * **Increase** _CCK_ ⇒**Increases** _bile_ (fat absorpotion) * _​_**Closes** pyloric sphincter
34
What is _occurring_ during the **colic phase?**
**Colic Phase** * "Colonic" = Large intestines * Pushes matter via peristalsis to make room * ~1 hour after eating * Ileocecal sphincter →External Anal→Internal Anal
35
What are the **six (6) sphincters** of the _GI tract_?
**GI Tract Sphincters** 1. Upper esophageal 2. Lower esophageal 3. Pyloric sphincter 4. Ileocecal sphincter 5. External anal sphincter 6. Internal anal sphincter
36
What sphincter is _between_ the **mouth and top esophagus**? ## Footnote **Mouth→?→Esophagus top**
**Upper Esophageal Sphincter** * Top of the esophagus * Between the mouth and esophagus
37
What sphincter is _between_ the **bottom of the esophagus and top of the stomach?** ## Footnote **Esophagus bottom →?→Stomach Top**
**Lower Esophageal Sphincter** * ​Bottom of esophagus * "Gastro-esophageal"
38
What sphincter is _between_ the **stomach bottom and small intestine?** **Stomach bottom →?→Small Intestine**
**Pyloric Sphincter** * Bottom of stomach
39
What sphincter is _between_ the **distal small intestine** and **large intestine?** **Distal small intestine →?→Large Intestine**
**Ileocecal Sphincter** * Bottom (distal) of small intestine
40
What sphincter is _between_ the **distal large intestine** and **toilet** that is **voluntary?** **Distal large intestine→?→Toilet** **Voluntary**
**External Anal Sphincter** * Bottom (distal) of large intestine * **Voluntary** control (skeletal muscles)
41
What sphincter is _between_ the **distal large intestine** and **toilet** and is **involuntary?** **Distal large intestine→?→Toilet** **Involuntary**
**Internal Anal Sphincter** * Bottom (distal) of large intestine * **Involuntary** control (reflex) * Smooth muscle
42
What is the composition of **fiber?**
**Fiber** * Made of **cellulose** (plant fiber) * Fiber/cellulose is _undigestable_ to human * No enzymes to digest it
43
What is the _purpose_ of **fiber?**
**Purpose of Fiber** * To push feces out faster * Makes the large intestine push out faster * Roughage adds speed
44
-genesis
**-genesis** * To form (to make) * Put of **absorptive state** * When you eat
45
**lipo-**
Fat
46
**Lipo**_genesis_
Making/storing fat * absorptive state
47
**Glyco-**
Sugar or carb
48
**Glyco**_genesis_
Making/storing sugar or carb * absorptive state
49
**Proteo-**
Protein
50
**Pepto-**
Protein
51
**Proteo**_genesis_
Make/store protein * absorptive state
52
**Pepto**_genesis_
Make/store protein * absorptive state
53
**-lysis**
**-lysis** * To destroy * Post-absorptive state (_not eating)_ * **Digestive state**
54
**Lipo**_lysis_
Destroying/_breaking down_ fats * Digestive state
55
**Glyco**_lysis_
Destroying/_breaking down_ sugar or carb * Digestive state
56
**Proteo**_lysis_
Destroy/_breaking down_ protein * digestive state
57
**Pepto**_lysis_
Destroying/_breaking down_ proteins * digestive state
58
What are the **characterisitcs** of _fat-soluable vitamins?_
**Fat-Soluable Vitamin Characterisitcs** 1. Stored in fat 2. _Hydro_**phobic** (water fearing)
59
What are the **characteristics** of _water-soluble vitamins?_
**Water-Soluble Vitamin Characteristics** 1. _Not_ stored in fat 2. "Pee out"
60
What are the **four** _fat-soluble vitamins?_ **"All Kittens Eat Dinner"**
**Fat-Soluble Vitamins** 1. Vitamin **A** 2. Vitamin **K** 3. Vitamin **E** 4. Vitamin **D** **"All Kittens Eat Dinner"**
61
What are the **two** _water-soluble vitmans?_ **"Clear Blue"**
**Water-Soluble Vitamins** 1. Vitamin **C** 2. Vitamin **B** **"Clear Blue"**
62
What is the **type & function** of: **Vitamin K**
**Vitamin K** 1. **​**Type: **Fa**t-soluble vitamin 2. Function: **blood clotting**
63
What is the **type & function** of: **Vitamin E**
**Vitamin E** 1. Type: **fat**-soluble vitamin 2. Function: **collagen synthesis** 1. **​**"elastic skin"
64
What is the **type & function** of: **Vitamin D**
**Vitamin D** 1. Type: **fat**-soluble vitamin 2. Function: **calcium absorption**
65
What is the **type & function** of: **Vitamin A**
**Vitamin A** 1. Type: **fat**-soluble vitamin 2. Function: **vision** pigments
66
What is the **type & function** of: **Vitamin C**
**Vitamin C** 1. Type: **water**-soluble vitamin 2. Function: **immunity** 1. **​**Immune cells 2. Co-factor for metabolism
67
What is the **type & function** of: **Vitamin B**
**Vitamin B** 1. Type: **water**-soluble vitamin 2. Function: cofactor for **metabolism**
68
Trace the pathway a **kidney stone** would take from where it was formed until it leaves the body
Kidney→Ureter→Bladder→Urethra
69
What is the color of **normal urine?**
The color of _normal urine_ ranges from **colorless to amber yellow**
70
If urine has a **pinkish color** what would that indicate for someone with a **kidney stone?**
* The _pinkish color_ of urine from a patient with a kidney stone indicates **bleeding and damage of the ureters**. * The kidney stone's sharp edges are damaging the ureter's walls as it is passing down to the bladder.
71
What **causes** kidney stones?
**Causes of Kidney Stones** 1. Dehydration (low H2O) 2. Kidney disease 3. High protein diet
72
If a kidney stone is _not_ small enough to pass on its own, what are _two options_ a doctor could do to **remove the large kidney stone**.
**The doctor would have two options:** 1. _Break up the stone into smaller pieces so it can pass_ 1. Shockwave/ ultrasound therapy 2. Laser therapy 3. Fluid therapy 2. _Surgically remove the stone_ 1. Surgery
73
What _substances_ are able to **enter the nephron of the kidney**? How do you know? "Some Uricorns Use Paint With Glitter"
Sustances that enter the nephron are _small molecules:_ 1. **S**odium (Na+) 2. **U**rea 3. **U**ric acid 4. **P**otassium (K+) 5. **W**ater (H2O) 6. **G**lucose (C6H12O6) "Some Unicorns Use Paint With Glitter"
74
What _substances_ are _not_ able to **enter the nephron of the kidney**? How do you know? ***"Alice's White Rabbit"***
**Large molecules** are not able to enter the nephron: 1. Albumin 2. WBC's 3. RBC's
75
What substances are **reabsorbed** into the blood stream from the kidney? What _processes moves_ these substances? "Water Buffalos" "All Penguins Skate Gleefully"
_Reabsorbed_ substances are: 1. **_W_**ater→**passive** transport 2. **_B_**icarbonate (HCO3-)→**passive** transport 3. **_A_**mino acids→***active*** transport 4. **_P_**otassium→***active*** transport 5. **_S_**odium→***active*** transport 6. **_G_**lucose→***active*** transport "Water Buffalos" = passive "All Penguins Skate Gleefully" = active
76
What substances are _secreted (pumped)_ out of the blood into the kidney? What _processes_ moves these substances? ***"Unicorns Wander Unconcerned"*** ***"Prince Harry Speaks Properly"***
_Secreted (pumped out) substances are:_ 1. Urea→**passive** transport 2. Water→**passive** transport 3. Uric acid→**passive** transport 4. Poisons/drugs→***active*** transport (_secreted_) 5. H+ ions→***active*** transport (_secreted_) 6. Sodium→***active*** transport 7. Potassium→***active*** transport
77
What are the **waste products** found in urine?
**Waste Products in Urine** 1. Urea (passive transport) 2. Uric acid (passive transport) 3. \*Poisons/drugs (active transport) 4. \*H+ ions (active transport) \*Secreted
78
What happens to the **acidity of urine** as it moves through the kidney?
As urine moves through the kidney the urine's pH becomes lower due to: 1. H+ ions are being secreted into the urine 2. Bicarbonate (HCO3-) is being absorbed into the blood stream
79
Why are **salt** and **water** levels _variable_ in urine? How are these _levels controlled?_
* The salt and water levels vary in urine due to _diet and environment_ * Salt and water levels are controlled by these **hormones**: 1. **ADH** (retains water) 1. Reabsorbs H2O from urine 2. **Aldosterone** 1. Reabsorbs salts from urine
80
How would you classify this girl's acid-base status?
Respiratory Acidosis
81
In the pathway of sperm, what organ is _between_ the **epididymis** and the **prostate**?
Vas Deferens
82
What is the _function_ of the **vas deferens?**
Vas deferens = sperm highway/ transport tube
83
Will the nurse's mistake increase or decrease the "saltiness" of the interstitual fluid?
**Increase** * The patient is recieving saline solution that is 4x saltier than it should have been. * This will make the interstitual fluid hypertonic (has a greater solute concentration)
84
Given your knowledge of osmosis, will this cause the cells in the body to increase or decrease in size? Explain your answer?
**The cells will decrease in size (shrink)** * The interstitial fluid is four times the concentration than the body cells * The IV solution is hypertonic * The RBC's are hypotonic * *_**Osmoss** is the movement of water molecules from low to high solute concentrations._* * Since the body cells (RBC's) are hypotonic the water in them will move out, causing them to shrink
85
Why does this patient have pitting edema and inspiratory rales?
* The water molecules are moving out of the body cells and going to the higher solute concentration in the interstitial fluid. * Therefore, ***the fluid is accumulating around the body cells, but not going into the cells.***
86
How would this increase in salt load affect the patient's blood-aldosterone level? Why?
**Decrease** aldosterone = **Decrease** Na+ reabsorpotion= **Increase** Urine * In order to maintain homeostasis, the increase in salt will need to be excreted out. * The body will _urinate more_ by **decreasing** the hormone _aldosterone_ which causes the _sodium channels_ to be **removed**, thereby a **decrease** in _sodium_ reabsorption
87
How would the body try to _compensate_ for the girl's acid-base imbalance?
**Metabolic Compensation** * **Decrease H+** by secreting out (peeing acid out) * **Increase HCO3-** by reabsorbing in kidneys
88
How would you classify her acid-base disturbance?
**Metabolic Alkalosis**
89
Why might excessive vomitting cause her particular acid-base disturbance?
The excessive vomitting causes the body to **lose acidity**, thus **increasing pH.**
90
How would the body compensate for this acid-base disturbance?
**Respiratory Compensation** (left shift) * Breathing slower (hypoventilation) in order to retain CO2 thereby increasing H+ blood acidity
91
What organs does the sperm travel for its passage?
_Passage of Sperm_ * Produced in the **testes →** stored in **epididymis →** transported in **vas deferens →** male **urethra** during ejaculation
92
1. What is the _function_ of the **testes?** 2. Are the **testes** internal or external?
**Testes** 1. **_Function:_** spermatogenesis (produces sperm) & testosterone 2. **Internal**
93
1. What is the _function_ of the **epididymis**? 2. Is the **epididymis** internal or external?
**Epididymis** 1. **_Function:_** sperm storage and maturation 1. "Sperm college" 2. Internal
94
1. What is the _function_ of the **vas deferens**? 2. Are the **vas deferens** internal or external?
**Vas Deferens** 1. **_Function:_** transports sperm 1. "Sperm highway" 2. Internal
95
1. What is the _function_ of the **scrotum**? 2. Is the **scrotum** internal or external?
**Scrotum** 1. **_Function:_** temperature control for testes 2. External
96
1. What is the _function_ of the **seminal vesicles**? 2. Are the **seminal vesicles** internal or external?
**Seminal Vesicles (behind bladder)** 1. **_Function:_** makes fluid (semen) 1. Clotting factor 2. Mucus 3. Buffer 4. Sugar 2. Internal
97
1. What is the _function_ of the **prostate gland**? 2. Is the **prostate gland** internal or external?
**_Prostate Gland_** 1. **_Function:_** makes fluids (semen 1. Activation 2. Mucus 3. Buffer 4. Clot buster 2. Internal
98
1. What is the _function_ of the **bulbo-urethral/ Cowper's gland**? 2. Is the **bulbo-urethral/ Cowper's gland** internal or external?
**Bulbo-urethral/ Cowper's gland** 1. **_Function:_** makes fluids 1. Mucus 2. Buffer 2. Internal
99
1. What is the _function_ of the **penis**? 2. Is the **penis** internal or external?
**Penis** 1. **_Function:_** copulation and urination 2. External
100
1. What is the _function_ of the **corpora cavernosa**? 2. Is the **corpora cavernosa** internal or external?
**Corpora Cavernosa** 1. **_Function:_** erectile tissues for penetration 1. Structures within the penis 2. External
101
1. What is the _function_ of the **corpus spongiosum**? 2. Is the **corpus spongiosum** internal or external?
**Corpus Spongiosum** 1. **_Function:_** erectile tissues around the urethra 2. External
102
The **seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbo-urethral glands** are considered to be "_accessory glands"_ because they do not directly make sperm. What do these glands do and why is it necessary?
*_Fluids Made By the Glands_* 1. **_Seminal vesicles_** 1. **_​_**Sugar (glucose) 2. Buffer 3. Mucus 4. Clotting factor 2. **_Prostate gland_** 1. **_​_**Buffer 2. Mucus 3. Clot buster (allows the sperm to swim with 20 min. delay) 4. Activator (tells the sperm to swim) 3. **_Cowper's/bulbo-urethral gland_** 1. **_​_**Mucus 2. Buffer
103
What type of _fluid_ is made by the **seminal vesicles?**
**Seminal Vesicles** 1. ​Sugar (glucose) 2. Buffer 3. Mucus 4. Clotting factor
104
What type of fluid is made by the **prostate gland**?
**Prostate Gland** 1. ​Buffer 2. Mucus 3. Clot buster (allows the sperm to swim with 20 min. delay) 4. Activator (tells the sperm to swim)
105
What type of fluid is made by the **Cowper's/bulbo-urethral gland**?
**Cowper's/Bulbo-urethral Gland** 1. ​Mucus 2. Buffer
106
How does blood flow relate to an _erection_?
1. The penis contains three elongated cylinders of erectile tissue 1. 2 corpora cavernosa 2. 1 corpora spongiosum 2. The erectile tissues enlarge with blood during sexual excitement, which causes the penis to become rigid and enlarged
107
1. What is the _function_ of the **ovaries**? 2. Are the **ovaries** internal or external?
**Ovaries** 1. _Function_: produces oocytes (egg cells) and hormones (estrogen and progesterone) 2. Internal
108
What does _homologous_ means?
Similiar as
109
Where does _ovulation_ occur?
**_Ov_**ary
110
Where does _conception/fertilization_ occur?
Fallopian tubes
111
Where does _pregnancy_ occur?
Uterus
112
What does it mean when your text says that "the clitoris is _homologous_ to the penis and the labia are _homologous_ to the scrotum?
* Male and female organs develop from the same embyronic structures, therefore are homologous * Thus, the penis is homologous to the clitoris and the scrotum is homologous to the labia majora
113
What organs of the _female_ are considered part of the **vulva?**
**Vulva (external genitals of female)** 1. Labia majora 2. Labia minora 3. Clitoris 4. Glands (vestibular) 5. Vagina
114
What organs of the _female_ are considered part of the **vestibule**?
**Vestibule** ("entrance") 1. Labia minora (not labia majora) 2. Clitorus 3. Vaginal orifice 4. Vestibular glands
115
What organs of the _female_ are considered part of the **perineum**?
**Perineum** ("peri-care") 1. Vulva (external genitals of female) 1. Labia majora 2. Labia minora 3. Clitoris 4. Glands (vestibular) 5. Vagina 2. Anus 3. Mons pubis
116
1. What is the _function_ of the **fallopian tubes**? 2. Are the **fallopian tubes** internal or external?
**Fallopian Tubes** 1. **​**_Function:_ ​Oocyte transport 2. Internal
117
1. What is the _function_ of the **uterus**? 2. Is the **uterus** internal or external?
**Uterus** 1. _Function_: gestation ("baby home") 2. Internal
118
1. What is the _function_ of the **cervix**? 2. Are the **cervix** internal or external?
**Cervix** ("neck of uterus") 1. _Function:_ gatekeeper 1. Regulates what comes in and out of the uterus 2. Internal
119
1. What is the _function_ of the **vagina**? 2. Is the **vagina** internal or external?
**Vagina** ("transitional organ") 1. _Function:_ birth canal & organ of sexual intercourse 2. Both internal and external
120
1. What is the _function_ of the **labia minora**? 2. Is the **labia minora** internal or external?
**Labia Minora** 1. _Function:_ protection, aesthetics, pleasure 2. External
121
1. What is the _function_ of the **labia majora**? 2. Is the **labia majora** internal or external?
**Labia Majora** 1. _Function:_ protection, aesthetics, pleasure 2. External
122
1. What is the _function_ of the **vestibular glands**? 2. Are the **vestibular glands** internal or external?
**Vestibular Glands** 1. _Function:_ lubrication 2. External
123
1. What is the _function_ of the **clitoris**? 2. Is the **clitoris** internal or external?
**Clitoris** 1. _Function:_ pleasure/ sexual arousal 2. External
124
What is the diagnosis? How do you know?
**Prostate Cancer** * Hard nodule on prostate gland * Elevated PSA (prostate specific antigen)
125
How would this man's discorder affect his _urinary_ and _reproductive abilities_?
* The patient's _urinary output and reproductive abilities_ would **decrease** because the enlarged prostate gland is obstructing the urethra. * This makes voiding harder and the enlarged prostate gland is smashing his ejaculatory ducts, therefore causing a decrease in his reproductive abilities. * The patient may also have difficulty feeling his penis, due to the enlarged prostate nodule compressing the penile arteries and nerves.
126
Describe a _mechanism_ by which a drug could _lower testosterone levels_ in the human body.
**Increase** _inhibition_→**Decrease** GnRH→**Decreases** FSH & **Decreases** LH→**Decreases** testerone \*Decrease FSH _stops_ spermatogenesis \*Decrease LH turns _off_ testerone levels in testes
127
Describe a _mechanism_ by which a drug could **increase** _testosterone levels i_n the human body.
**Decrease** _inhibition_→**Increase** GnRH→**Increases** FSH & **Increases** LH→**Increases** testerone **\*Increase** FSH spermatogenesis (makes sperm) **\*Increase** LH turns _on_ testerone levels in testes
128
Why would castration reduce testosterone? Would all of a castrated man's testosterone be gone?
* Castration is the surgical removal of the testicles, causing testosterone to no longer be produced.
129
Why does castration reduce prostate growth?
* Testosterone is a growth hormone for the male sex/reproductive organs. * Castration removes the source of testosterone, thereby not testosterone is used to stimulate the prostate gland to grow.
130
How would castration affect the man's ability to have an erection or ejaculate? Why?
The castration causes the man's body not to make testosterone, thereby he will not have a sex drive.
131
What is the diagnosis of this woman? What is wrong with her?
****_Endo_**metriosis** * The uterine lining cells are outside the uterus causing them to expand and contract, thinking that the tissue around them is the uterus
132
What does "_ectopic endometrial tissue"_ mean?
**Ectopic Endometrial Tissue** * Ectopic means outside/ wrong place * Ectopic endomentrial tissue is tissue that thinks its uterine tissue which is not in the uterus but in the wrong place
133
Could ectopic endometrial tissue exist outside of the uterus? Why or why not? How would it get there?
1. **Retrograde Movement** 1. The endometrial tissue broke off but instead of moving down, it moved back through the fallopian tubes and attached to the wrong tissues 2. **Genetic Disorder**
134
Why would a gonadotropin _inhibitor_ (like Danazol) help this woman?
**Increase** _inhibition_→**Decrease** GnRH→**Decreases** FSH & **Decreases** LH→**Decrease** estrogen & **Increase** progesterone * Inhibitor: something that _stops_ something * The **GnRH inhibitor would decrease the estrogen and increase the progesterone** * Making the body believe that its pregnant (_luteal phase_), thus ceasing menstrual cycles
135
How does Danazol (GnRH inhibitor) stop ovulation?
**Increase** inhibition→**Decrease** GnRH→**Decreases** FSH & **Decreases** LH→**Decrease** estrogen & **Increase** progesterone * Danazol makes the body "permanently luteal" thereby making the hypothalamus stop "ordering eggs" for ovulation
136
Would oral contraceptive also work? Why or why not?
**Increase** inhibition→**Decrease** GnRH→**Decreases** FSH & **Decreases** LH→**Decrease** estrogen & **Increase** progesterone * Yes because it minics hormones (making the body luteal)
137
Abstinence
No sex (other)
138
Spermicide
Sperm motility
139
Condoms or Diaphragm
Ejaculation (condom) and/or sperm motility
140
Oral Contraceptives (Birth Control Pills)
Ovulation
141
Injectable Contraceptives (Depo Provera)
Ovulation
142
Withdrawal aka "pull and pray"
Ejaculation
143
Natural Family Planning
Ovulation
144
Intrauterine Device (IUD) (without hormones)
Implantation
145
Vasectomy or Tubal Ligation
Ejaculation and ovulation "cut the highway"
146
1. Are there any contraceptive that are hormonal agonists? 2. What about hormonal antagonists? 3. Why?
1. Hormonal agonists (initiator/increases) 1. GnRH inhibitors (females) 1. Oral contracentives (females) which increase progesterone and decrease estrogen causing the body to be luteal (thinks its pregnant) 2. Hormonal antagonists (inhibitor/blockers) 1. GnRH antagonist (males): blocks GnRH, thereby blocking FSH and LH, stopping spermatogenesis or secondary male characteristics
147
Are there contraceptives that act on the gonads? What about the pituitary gland?What about the hypothalamus?
Oral contraceptives ("the pill") acts on the ovaries, **increasing inhibition** which then tells the pituitary gland to **decrease FSH and decrease LH**. Turns of "managment" the hypothalamus
148
What are the physical signs of a woman's ovulation?
* Increase in cervical mucus and cervical fluid * Changes in vascular temperature
149
If a woman took a blood test to monitor her hormones, what would she see that would prove she's ovulating? What hormones would be doing what?
* The woman's estrogen levels peak during ovulation * There would be an _increase of LH & FSH indicating ovulation_
150
Why is only ovulation time important for this method of contraception?
During ovulation time the cervix is open and the oocyte is present, thereby working in conjunction for conception to occur
151
If sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) were an issue, what kinds of contraception would be the best? Why?
Condoms because they are barriers
152
If a man wanted to take a hormonal contraceptive, what hormone(s) could he take to decrease his sperm count without affecting his sex characteristics or sex drive?
The hormonal contraceptive would have to turn off the FSH, which produces sperm, but not the LH which contributes to testosterone and secondary sex characterisitvs. GnRH antagonist with testerone
153
What are the three (3) functions of the urinary system?
**_Functions of the Urinary System (in order):_** 1. Filteration 1. The step from the blood to the nephron 1. Takes small molecules 2. Reabsorption 1. The step from the nephron to the blood 1. "U turn" 3. Secretion 1. The step from the blood to the nephron 4. All three steps produce urine
154
What is the nephron?
The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney
155
What is happening during _filteration_ of the nephron?
**_Filteration_** * First step * The step from the blood to the nephron * The **Bowman's capsule** filters out RBC from the **glomerulus** so only plasma and small molecule enter
156
What does the PCT secrete and how?
**_PCT Secretions_** 1. H+ (active transport) 2. Poisons/ drugs (active transport)
157
What _function_ does the **PCT** perform for the urinary sytem?
Reabsorption & Secretion 1. **PCT** starts to filter out plasma 2. Reabsorbs 1. Na+ (active transport) 2. HCO3- (passive transport) 3. H2O (passive transport) 4. C6H12O6 (active transport) 5. Amino acids (active transport) 3. Secretes 1. H+ (active transport) 2. Poisons/ drugs (active transport)
158
What _substances_ does **PCT** _reabsorb_ and how?
**_PCT Reabsorbs_** * Na+ (active transport) * HCO3- (passive transport) * H2O (passive transport) * C6H12O6 (active transport) * Amino acids (active transport)
159
What does the _descending limb_ of the **Hoop of Henle** reabsorb and how?
**_Descending Limb Hoop of Henle_** * Reabsorbs _only_ **water** with **aqua-porins**
160
What does the _ascending limb_ of the **Hoop of Henle** reabsorb and how?
**_Ascending Limb for Loop of Henle_** * **ONLY** Reabsorbs * Na+ (both active & passive transport due to osmotic gradient) * H2O
161
What is the function of the **Loop of Henle?**
Function of Loop of Henle * Only reabsorption * Descending limb * Water with aqua-porins * Ascending limb * Water (passive transport) * Na+ (both active & passive transport) * Due to osmotic gradient
162
What is the _function_ of the **DCT?**
DCT Function * Reabsorption & Secretion * DCT finishes _filteration_ by reabsorbing water and nutrients * * Na+ (active transport) * HCO3- (active transport) * Secretions * H+ (active transport) * Drugs/poisons (active transport)
163
What does the DCL secrete and how?
**_DCL Secretions_** * H+ (active transport) * Drugs/poisons (active transport)
164
What does the DCL reabsorb and how?
**_DCL Reabsorption_** * Water (passive transport) * Na+ (active transport) * HCO3- (active transport)
165
What is the purpose of the collecting duct of the nephron?
**_Collecting Duct_** * _"Last Minute" Reabsorption_ * Water (passive transport) * Na+ (active transport) * **Urea** (active transport) * **Disposes of urine**
166
What is the purpose of the **glomerulus?**
Filteration * Where the blood and the nephron meet
167
How does water get reabsorbed from the nephron back into the bloodstream?
Aqua-porins
168
What is the overall functions(s) of the kidney?
Function of the Kidney 1. Cleans the blood of waste, toxins, nitrogenous wastes (uric acid, urea, ammonia) 2. Reabsorbs H2O 3. Reabsorbs salts and nutrients 4. Regulates the osmosity of blood
169
What is are the nephrons and its purpose?
Nephrons * The _structural and functional unit_ of the kidneys * Microscopic tubes * _Purpose_: to filter waste from the bloodstream
170
What are the signs that there is _damage_ to the filteration membrane of the **nephrons**?
Damage to the Filteration Membrane 1. Big molecules that are not normally filtered through including: 1. Increased protein in urine 2. Presense of blood cells
171
What are the molecules that pass through the filternation membrane?
Small molecules including: * H2O * Na+ * C6H12O6 * Urea * Uric acid * Drugs/poisons * HCO3- * Amino Acids
172
What is the **relationship** between _blood pressure_ and _blood_ _volume to the nephron_?
Blood pressure is pushing the blood into the nephron The amount of blood going into the nephron depends on blood pressure
173
If blood pressure is low what does that mean for the blood volume going into the nephrons?
Low BP = Low Blood Volume to Nephrons Direct Relationship
174
If blood pressure is _high_ what does that mean for the blood volume going into the nephrons?
High Blood Pressure = High Blood Volume to Nephrons Direct Relationship
175
What is GFR?
**GFR = glomerular filteration rate** * The amount/rate of filteration of blood to the nephron * Mechanicism of homeostasis * Normal GFR ~125 mL/minute
176
If blood pressure is low, what is the rate for GFR? What mechanicism of homeostasis is used to change GFR?
Low blood pressure = Low GFR * Vasodilation = more fluid in * The afferent arteriole dilates in order to bring GFR into homeostasis
177
If blood pressure is **high**, what is the rate for GFR? What mechanicism of homeostasis is used to change GFR?
High blood pressure = high GFR * Vasoconstriction = less fluid in * Constriction of the afferent arteriole at the nephron causes the kidneys to have less fluid go in
178
If you were a kidney stone, what organ would you enter after you left the kidney?
Ureter→Urinary bladder→Urethra
179
180
Which of the substances in the table moves entirely by **passive** process? List all that apply.
Water
181
Taking this quiz has caused your **blood pressure to go up.** What will your hight blood pressure do to your GFR (glomerulat filteration rate) in the short term, before compensation?
High blood pressure = High GFR GFR goes up when BP is high before compensation
182
Taking this quiz has caused your **blood pressure to go up.** How will your _body compensate_ for the change in GFR, specifically?
High blood pressure = High GFR Vasoconstriction: less fluid in
183
How do the kidneys use **vasoconstriction** regulate GFR?
**High** Blood Volume= **High** blood pressure = **High** GFR * Vasoconstriction * As the BP level _increase_, the GFR also increase causing the **kidneys to constrict the vessels** in order for the BP and GFR levels to go back to normal
184
**Low** Blood Volume= **Low** blood pressure = **Low** GFR * Vasodilation * As the BP level _decreases_, the GFR also decrease causing the kidneys to **dilate the vessels** in order for the BP and GFR levels to go back to normal
185
What organ structure has sodium channels and aqua-porins?
The **nephrons** have sodium channels and aqua-porins
186
How does an _increase_ of **aldosterone** affect sodium reabsorption?
Increase Aldosterone = Increase Na+ reabsorption * More sodium needs to be reabsorbed from the urine to the body tissues * More sodium channels are needed
187
What is the relationship between **aldosterone** levels and **sodium reabsorption?**
Sodium reabsoption is based on aldosterone levels Direct Relationship
188
How does a _decrease_ of **aldosterone** affect **sodium reabsorption**?
Decrease aldosterone = Decrease sodium reabsorption * Less sodium needs to be reabsorbed into the tissues * Most of the sodium is excreted out into the urine * Less sodium channels
189
What is the relationship between **ADL** levels and **water reabsorption**?
Water reabsoption is based on ADL levels Direct Relationship
190
How does a _decrease_ of **ADH** affect **water reabsorption?**
Decrease ADH = Decrease water reabsorption * Less water needs to be reabsorbed into the tissues * Most of the water is excreted out into the urine * Less aqua-porins
191
How does an increase of **ADH** affect **water reabsorption**?
Increase ADH = Increase water reabsoption * More water needs to be reabsorbed from the urine to the body tissues * More aquaporins
192
193
What hormone control sodium reabsorption in the nephron and how?
Aldosterone level determine sodium channels
194
What hormone determines water reabsorption in the nephron and how?
ADH levels determine aqua-porins used
195
What is dehydration? How does the body compensate for dehydration?
Dehydration = loss of water * The body compensates for dehydration by: * Increasing aldosterone levels= Increases sodium reabsorption via sodium channels * Increasing ADH levels = Increases water reabsorption via aquaporins * The sodium follows the water via osmosis * Causes less urine
196
What is over-hydration? How does the body compensate for over-hydration?
(Over)hydration= too much water * The body compensates for over-hydration by: * Decreasing aldosterone levels = decreases sodium reabsorption = less sodium channels * Decreases ADL levels = decreases water reabsorption = less aqua-porins * The sodium follows the water via osmosis * More (clear) urine
197
What is osmosis?
The movement of water * A type of diffusion * Osmosis is a type of **passive** transport * Water will move to the **higher** concentration of solutes
198
What does it mean when a solution is **hyertonic?**
Hypertonic= has a higher concentration of solutes Makes the water molecules move to the higher concentration via osmosis
199
What does it mean when a solution is _hypotonic?_
Hypotonic = less concentration of solutes Water moves to the high concentration (hypertonic) from the less concentrated area (hypotonic)
200
What does ICF? What is an example of ICF?
* ICF = intra-cellular fluid * Cytoplasm
201
What is ECF? What is an example of ECF?
ECF= extra-cellular fluid * Plasma (around the cells) & interstitual fluid
202
Metabolic Acidosis
203
Respiratory alkalosis
204
Metabolic acidosis with partial respiratory compensation
205
Metabolic alkalosis with partial respiratory compensation
206
Respiratory acidosis (pH closest to acid even though normal)
207
Metabolic alkalosis (pH closest to base even though normal)
208
**_Acid-Base Balance_** pH 7.31 CO2 49 HCO3- 24
Respiratory Acidosis
209
**Acid-Base Balance** pH 7.50 CO2 37 HCO3- 29
Metabolic Alkalosis
210
A food is digested only in the stomach and small intestine. Is the food a carbohydrate, protein, or fat?
Protein
211
Does the mouth participate in physical digestion?
Yes, chewing
212
Does the esophagus participate in physical digestion?
No, just moves the food to the stomach
213
Does the small intestine participate in physical digestion?
Yes, mixes the food/chyme
214
What is another name for the small intestine?
Villi
215
What is another name for the large intestine?
Colon
216
Does the large intestine participate in physical digestion?
No
217
Does the mouth participate in chemical digestion?
Yes via saliva
218
Does the esophagus participate in chemical digestion?
No
219
Does the stomach participate in chemical digestion
Yes (\*Vomit)
220
Does the small intestine participate in chemical digestion?
Yes
221
Does the large intestine participate in chemical digestion?
No
222
What is the product of starch?
Sugar
223
What is the substrate of sugar?
Starch
224
What is the product of fat?
Fatty acids
225
What is the substrate of fatty acids?
Fats
226
What is the product of protein?
Amino acids
227
What is the substrate of amino acids?
Protein
228
Which enzymes are made by the brush border? "**Small Dotted Puppies Must Learn Commands"**
1. Surcase (Sugars→Simple Sugars) 2. Dex-trin-ase (Sugars→Simple Sugars) 3. Pepti-dase (Proteins→Amino Acids) 4. Malt-ase (Sugars→Simple Sugars) 5. Lact-ase (Sugars→Simple Sugars) 6. Carboxy-pepti-dase (Proteins→Amino Acids)
229
Which enzymes are present in the small intestine? ## Footnote **"Small Dotted Puppies Must Learn Commands And Tiny Cats Listen."**
1. Brush border (lining of SI) * Surcase (Sugars→Simple Sugars) * Dex-trin-ase (Sugars→Simple Sugars) * Pepti-dase (Proteins→Amino Acids) * Malt-ase (Sugars→Simple Sugars) * Lact-ase (Sugars→Simple Sugars) * Carboxy-pepti-dase (Proteins→Amino Acids) 1. Pancreas 1. Amylase (Starch→Sugar) 2. Try-p-sin (Protein →Amino Acids) 3. Chymo-try-p-sin (Protein →Amino Acids) 4. Lip-ase (Fats →Fatty Acids)
230
Which enzymes are made in the pancreas and where are they used? "And Tiny Cats Listen"
Used in the small intestine * Amylase (Starch→Sugar) * Try-p-sin (Protein →Amino Acids) * Chymo-try-p-sin (Protein →Amino Acids) * Lip-ase (Fats →Fatty Acids)
231
What digestive organs use **amylase**? Where is its source? What is amylases' substrates and products?
Amylase (Starch →Sugar) 1. Mouth (salivary glands) 2. Small intestine (pancreas)
232
What digestive organs use **lipase**? Where is its source? What is amylases' substrates and products?
Lipase (Fats→Fatty Acids) 1. Mouth (salivary glands) 2. Stomach (Stomach) 3. Small intestines (pancreas)
233
What enzymes digest protein? What is the substrate and products of protein? ## Footnote **"Please Try Crispy Peppered Chicken"**
Protein→Amino Acids 1. Pepsin 2. Typ-sin 3. Chymo-typ-sin 4. Pepti-dase 5. Carb-oxy-pepti-dase
234
Which enzyme digest fats? What is fat's substrate and products?
Fats→Fatty Acids 1. Lipase
235
What are the (5) steps for fat absorption?
Fat Absorption 1. Brush border of SI 2. Chylo-microns ("fat carries" 1. Carry fats due to fats being hydrophobic 3. Lacteal 1. Capillary of lymph 4. Subclavian vein 5. Blood stream
236
What enzymes digest carbohydrates? What are their substrates and products? "A Dog Sniffs My Leg"
Carbohydrates→Starch→Sugars 1. Starch→Sugar 1. Amylase 2. Sugar→Simple Sugars 1. Dex-trin-ase 2. Sucrase 3. Malt-ase 4. Lact-ase
237
What two things do fats need in order to be absorbed?
Since fats are **hydrophobic** (water fearing) they need _chylo-microns_ ("fat carriers") and a _different route_ (lymph)
238
What is a **chylo-micron?**
"Fat carriers" for the hydrophobic fat to travel to through the lymph for absorption
239
What is **bile?**
Bile is a **fat emulsifier** which makes the fat molecules smaller, and easier for absorption "Soap"
240
Is bile an enzyme?
No, its an emulsifier
241
Hx
History
242
SOB
Shortness of breath
243
c/o
Complain of
244
sputum
mucus in lungs
245
CXR
chest x-ray
246
bilateral infiltrates
"crud" in both lungs
247
HTN
hyertension
248
DM I
diabetes mellitus type I
249
109/52
blood pressure systolic/diastolic
250
94
pulse rate
251
24
respiration rate
252
38.5
temperature in degrees Celsius
253
95%
Oxygen saturation "pulse ox"
254
What does the medication **insulin** do?
Insulin lwers the blood sugar level for patients with DM I by putting the glucise into the cells, out of the blood stream
255
What does the medication **ACE inhibitor** do for the patient?
Lowers BP by being an -ACE antagonists Stops the BP from going up
256
What does the medication **diuretic** do for the patient?
Lowers blood pressure by lowering blood volume * Makes the patient urinate more, to release the excess fluids and salts
257
Oocyte
egg cell
258
Primary oocyte
1o oocyte * Oocyte before **meiosis** * Diploid
259
Secondary oocyte
2o oocyte * Oocyte after **meoisis** * Haploid
260
Follicle
Cells around the oocyte before ovulation * "the nest around the egg"
261
What happens to a woman's oocytes and follicles once she reaches puberty?
Once a woman starts puberty her **eggs (oocytes) and follicles grow larger**
262
What is ovulation and when does it occur in the menstrual cycle?
Ovulation = releasing of the oocyte from the follicle * Occurs in the middle of the menstrual cycle when estrogen levels have peaked
263
What is the difference between the male reproductive cycle and the female's reproductive cycle in terms of making new gametes?
The male reproductive system operates on a **daily** basis, while the female reproductive system operates on a **monthly** basis.
264
What is the **corpus lutem** and when does it occur in the menstrual cycle?
Corpys lutem = empty follicle ("empty nest") * Occurs after ovulation
265
What is the **corpus albicans** and when does it occur in the menstrual cycle?
Corpus albicans= the empty shrunken follicle that became scar tissue * After the luteal phase
266
If an embryo were exposed to Warfarin (an anti-coagulant rat poison) only during the first trimester, what might happen to the embyro? What about exposure only during the second trimester?
267
If a mother has low O2 saturation, how will her body compensate for the fetus?
Low O2 saturation = Increase EPO = Increase RBC
268
If a mother has high O2 saturation, how will her body compensate for the fetus?
High O2 saturation = Decrease EPO = Decrease RBC
269
What is the placenta?
Placenta = organ that cares care of the body
270
What is the function of the placenta?
1. The placenta supplies **nutrient exchange** between mother and baby 2. Makes hormones (endocrine organ)
271
What type of molecules can pass through the placenta?
Small molecules * Salts (sodium & potassium) * Gases (CO2 &O2) * Glucose * Amino acids * Hormones
272
When does the embryo have a placenta?
At 3 weeks
273
274
When you are 3 weeks pregnant what does that entail?
Embryo with placenta
275
What is the function of the placental hormones?
The placental hormones are secreted by the placenta to maintain pregnancy
276
What are the (5) placental hormones and their functions?
1. Placental estrogen 1. Maintains endometrium 2. "Thick & bloody" 2. Placental progesterone 1. Mains endometruim 2. "Thick & bloody" 3. Calms uterus 3. Placental relaxin 1. Relaxes cartilage (pubic symphysis, vertebrae, feet, joints) 2. To make room for baby 4. Placental lactogen 1. Increases breast activity (makes boobs grow) 2. Increase fat usage in mom 3. Increase blood sugar for the baby's growth 1. Gestational diabetes 5. Placental CRH (corti-co-troph-in releasing hormone) 1. Increases ACTH = Increase Cortison = Increases lung development + Increases estrogen (to maintain endometrium)
277
What is the function of the _placental hormone_ **estrogen?**
**Placental Estrogen** * Maintains the endometrium * "Thick & bloody" * Calms the uterus
278
What is the function of the _placental hormone_ **progesterone**?
**Placental Progesterone** * Maintains the endometrium * "Thick & bloody" * Calms the uterus
279
What is the function of the _placental hormone_ **relaxin**?
**Placental Relaxin** * Relaxes cartilage to "make room for baby" * Pubic symphysis * Vertebrae * Feet * Joints
280
What is the function of the _placental hormone_ **lactogen?**
**Placental Lactogen** * Increases breast activity * "Makes boobs grow" * Increase fat usage in mom (fat metabolism) * Increase blood sugar for the baby's growth * Gestational diabetes
281
What is the function of the _placental hormone_ **CRH**\*? \*CRG = corti-co-troph-in releasing hormone
**Placental CRH** * Increases _ACTH_ = Increase **_Cortiso_**l= Increase _lung development_ + increases _estrogen_ (to maintain endometrium & increase blood flow to the skin)
282
Explain the process of birth in terms of hormones (6 steps)
**Birth** 1. Increase _estrogen_ = Increase _oxytocin_ receptors on uterine muscle → _contractions_ 2. **Fetus pressures cervix** 3. **Cervix** signals the brain → _hypothalamus_ 4. **Hypothalamus** releases _increase oxytocin_ 5. Oxytocin → _uterus contractions_ 6. _Placental stage_ = placenta is delivered= afterbirth
283
284
What type of feedback is birth?
Birth = Positive feedback Increase in oxytocin = Increase contraction = Fetus pressures cervix = cervic signals hypothalamus = increases oxytocin....
285
Explain the **expulsion** stage of birth
**Expulsion = positve feedback** * Fetus pressures cervix → Cervix signals hypothalamus →Hypothalamus releases increase oxytocin → oxytocin increase ⇒uterine contractins which cause the fetus to pressure cervix
286
Explain the process of lactation
**Lactation** 1. Placental lactogen "primes" mammary glands 2. _Prolactin_ = Increases milk productin after birth 1. _Increases/ monitors milk levels via breast stretch_ 3. _Oxytocin_ = releases milk = "let down" 1. Monitored by hypothalamus (limibic system) 1. Emotions (crying, thinking) & nipple stimulation
287
If a breastfeeding woman decides to wean her child, what will happen to her milk production? Explain in terms of hormones.
**Increase** in breast stretch = **Decrease** in milk let down (oxytocin) = **Decrease** prolactin = **Decrease** in milk production
288
How can a woman who is trying to breastfeed and increase her milk production. Explain in terms of hormones.
**Decrease** in breast stretch = **Increase** in milk let down (oxytocin) = **Increase** prolactin = **Increase** milk production
289
How does the brain monitor milk production? What hormones influence milk production?
* The hypothalamus monitors milk production via _breast stretch_ * The hormone prolactin is "in charge" of milk production after birth
290

Final Anatomy & Physiology Exam (1 decks)

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