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Final Anatomy & Physiology Exam > Final > Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the three characteristics of the respiratory membrane?

A

Respiratory Membrane

  1. Thin Membrane
    1. _​_Simple squamous cell ET = quick exchange
  2. Macrophages
    1. _​_Eats pathogens (immunity)
  3. Surfactant-secreting cells
    1. _​_Function: lubrication
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2
Q

How does smoking affect the respiratory membrane?

A

Smoker’s Respiratory Membrane

  1. Smoking kills surfactant-secreting cells
    1. _​_No lubrication causes the alveoli to stick to each other
  2. Smoking kills macrophages
    1. _​_No immunity
  3. Smoking causes the thin membrane to thicken
    1. ​Thickening makes it harder to gasous exchange
    2. Harder to breathe
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3
Q

What is the function of the respiratory system?

A

Function of Respiratory System

  • Gas exchange (of the bloodstream and alveoli)
    • CO2 (out)
    • O2 (in)
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4
Q

What is inhalation?

A

Inhalation

  • The process of drawing in air and other substances into the airways and lungs
    • O2 in
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5
Q

What are the five steps of inhalation?

A

Inhalation (5) Steps

  1. Diaphragm moves down = contraction
  2. Increase in thoracic cavity space
    1. The chest is bigger in volume
    2. The lungs & thoracic cavity move as an unit due to visceral pleura
  3. Lungs expand
  4. Pressure decreases in the lungs
    1. ​Decrease in alveoli/air sacs
  5. Air moves out due to pressure gradient
    1. From high to low pressure
    2. Passive process
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6
Q

What is happening based on the relationship of volume and pressure?

Increase Volume = Decrease Pressure

A

Inhalation

Increase Volume = Decrease Pressure

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7
Q

What is exhalation?

A

Exhalation

  • The act of breathing out air from the lungs and airways
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8
Q

What are the five steps of exhalation?

A

Exhalation (5) Steps

  1. Diaphragm moves UP = relaxes
  2. Thoracic cavity gets smaller = decrease in volume
  3. Lungs get smaller (decrease)
  4. Pressure increases in alveoli
  5. Air moves OUT from high to low pressure due to pressure gradient
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9
Q

What is happening based on the relationship between volume and pressure?

Decrease Volume = Increase Pressure

A

Exhalation

Decrease Volume = Increase Pressure

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10
Q

What organs are involved in the pathway of inhalation?

A

Pathway of Inhalation

  1. (Start) Nose
  2. Pharynx
  3. Larynx
  4. Trachae
  5. Bronchi
  6. Lungs
  7. Alveoli (air sacs)
    1. Respiratory membrane
  8. (Finish) Capillaries = bloodstream
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11
Q

What is between the alveoli (air sacs) and capillaries (blood)?

A

Thin layer called the respiratory membrane

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12
Q

What is the relationship between the visceral pleura and the thoracic cavity?

A
  • The visceral pleura allows the thoracic cavity and the lungs to move as a unit
    • The visceral pleura adheres the lungs to the thoracic cavity via negative pressure
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13
Q

What are the three hormones of digestion?

A

(3) Hormones of Digestion

  1. Gastrin
  2. Secretin
  3. CCK (chole-cysto-kin-in)
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14
Q

What is the origin of gastrin?

A

Origin of Gastrin

  • Gastrin is made by the stomach
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15
Q

What is the target of gastrin?

A

Target of Gastrin

  • Gastrin targets the G & Chief cells in the stomach
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16
Q

What is known as the “stomach hormone”?

A

Gastrin = stomach hormone

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17
Q

What is the purpose of gastrin?

A

The purpose of gastrin is to increase HCl production

  • Increase HCl production:
    • Increase stomach acid & increase pepsin→
    • Increase stomach activity →
    • Opens pyloric sphincter (stomach is trying to empty faster)
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18
Q

What is the origin, target, & action of gastrin?

A

Gastrin

  1. Origin: stomach
  2. Target: G & Chief cells in stomach
  3. Action: Increase HCl production
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19
Q

What is the origin of secretin?

A

Origin of Secretin

  • Made in the SI (small intestine)
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20
Q

What is the target of secretin?

A

The target of secretin is the pancrease

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21
Q

What is the purpose of secretin?

A

The purpose of secretin:

Increase buffer released into the SI to reduce acidity

Makes the SI more basic & less acidic

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22
Q

What is the origin, target, & action of secretin?

A

Secretin

  • Origin: SI
  • Target: Pancreas
  • Action: Increases buffers to make the SI less acidic
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23
Q

What is the origin of CCK*?

CCK: chole-cysto-kin-in

A

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

  • Made by the small intestine (SI)
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24
Q

What is the target of *CCK?

*CCK: chole-cysto-kin-in

A

Cholecystokinin (CCK)’s target is the bile system

  • Bile helps to break down fat
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25
Q

What is the action of *CCK?

*CCK: chole-cysto-kin-in

A

Cholecystokinin (CCK)’s action is to increase fat digestion:

  • Closes the pyloric sphincter→Stops stomach activity
  • *The more fat in the diet = longer for SI to empty
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26
Q

What is the origin, target, & action of CCK (cholecystokinin)?

A

CCK (cholecystokinin)

  • Origin: SI
  • Target: bile system
  • Action: increase fat digestion to close pyloric sphincter to stop stomach activity
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27
Q

What are the (4) phases/reflexes of digestion?

A

(4) Phases of Digestion

  1. Cephalic phase = brain
  2. Gastric phase = stomach
  3. Intestional phase = small intestine
  4. Colic phase = colon (large intestine)
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28
Q

What is occurring during the cephalic phase?

A

Cephalic Phase

  1. “Brain” = sees, imagines, smells food
  2. Increase in hunger
  3. Starts stomach activity (“growling”)
    1. Increase in gastrin (tells the stomach “to go”)
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29
Q

What hormone is being used during the cephalic phase?

A

Cephalic Phase (brain) causes:

  • Increases gastrin ⇒Increases stomach activity
    • Tells the stomach to “go”
  • OPENS pyloric sphincter
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30
Q

What is occurring during the gastric phase?

A

Gastric Phase

  • “Stomach” = when you eat food
  • Increase gastrin→Increase stomach activity
    • Increase in gastrin (tells the stomach “to go”)
  • Causes pyloric sphincter to OPEN
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31
Q

What hormone is being used during the gastric phase?

A

Gastric Phase (stomach) casuses:

  • Increases gastrin ⇒Increases stomach activity
    • Tells the stomach to “go”
  • OPENS pyloric sphincter
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32
Q

What is occurring during the intestinal phase?

A

Intestinal Phase

  1. “Entrails/Small instestines” → Chyme enters from stomach
  2. Decreases/ STOPS stomach activity by:
    1. Secreting increase secretin
    2. Secreting increase CCK for increase bile
  3. Food absorption → Closes pyloric sphincter
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33
Q

What hormones are used during the intestinal phase?

A

Intestinal Phase (SI) casuses:

  • Increases secretin ⇒Decreases stomach activity
    • Tells the stomach to “STOP”
  • Increase CCK ⇒Increases bile (fat absorpotion)
    • ​Closes pyloric sphincter
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34
Q

What is occurring during the colic phase?

A

Colic Phase

  • “Colonic” = Large intestines
  • Pushes matter via peristalsis to make room
    • ~1 hour after eating
  • Ileocecal sphincter →External Anal→Internal Anal
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35
Q

What are the six (6) sphincters of the GI tract?

A

GI Tract Sphincters

  1. Upper esophageal
  2. Lower esophageal
  3. Pyloric sphincter
  4. Ileocecal sphincter
  5. External anal sphincter
  6. Internal anal sphincter
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36
Q

What sphincter is between the mouth and top esophagus?

Mouth→?→Esophagus top

A

Upper Esophageal Sphincter

  • Top of the esophagus
  • Between the mouth and esophagus
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37
Q

What sphincter is between the bottom of the esophagus and top of the stomach?

Esophagus bottom →?→Stomach Top

A

Lower Esophageal Sphincter

  • ​Bottom of esophagus
  • “Gastro-esophageal”
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38
Q

What sphincter is between the stomach bottom and small intestine?

Stomach bottom →?→Small Intestine

A

Pyloric Sphincter

  • Bottom of stomach
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39
Q

What sphincter is between the distal small intestine and large intestine?

Distal small intestine →?→Large Intestine

A

Ileocecal Sphincter

  • Bottom (distal) of small intestine
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40
Q

What sphincter is between the distal large intestine and toilet that is voluntary?

Distal large intestine→?→Toilet

Voluntary

A

External Anal Sphincter

  • Bottom (distal) of large intestine
  • Voluntary control (skeletal muscles)
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41
Q

What sphincter is between the distal large intestine and toilet and is involuntary?

Distal large intestine→?→Toilet

Involuntary

A

Internal Anal Sphincter

  • Bottom (distal) of large intestine
  • Involuntary control (reflex)
    • Smooth muscle
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42
Q

What is the composition of fiber?

A

Fiber

  • Made of cellulose (plant fiber)
    • Fiber/cellulose is undigestable to human
      • No enzymes to digest it
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43
Q

What is the purpose of fiber?

A

Purpose of Fiber

  • To push feces out faster
    • Makes the large intestine push out faster
    • Roughage adds speed
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44
Q

-genesis

A

-genesis

  • To form (to make)
    • Put of absorptive state
    • When you eat
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45
Q

lipo-

A

Fat

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46
Q

Lipogenesis

A

Making/storing fat

  • absorptive state
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47
Q

Glyco-

A

Sugar or carb

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48
Q

Glycogenesis

A

Making/storing sugar or carb

  • absorptive state
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49
Q

Proteo-

A

Protein

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50
Q

Pepto-

A

Protein

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51
Q

Proteogenesis

A

Make/store protein

  • absorptive state
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52
Q

Peptogenesis

A

Make/store protein

  • absorptive state
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53
Q

-lysis

A

-lysis

  • To destroy
  • Post-absorptive state (not eating)
    • Digestive state
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54
Q

Lipolysis

A

Destroying/breaking down fats

  • Digestive state
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55
Q

Glycolysis

A

Destroying/breaking down sugar or carb

  • Digestive state
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56
Q

Proteolysis

A

Destroy/breaking down protein

  • digestive state
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57
Q

Peptolysis

A

Destroying/breaking down proteins

  • digestive state
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58
Q

What are the characterisitcs of fat-soluable vitamins?

A

Fat-Soluable Vitamin Characterisitcs

  1. Stored in fat
  2. Hydrophobic (water fearing)
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59
Q

What are the characteristics of water-soluble vitamins?

A

Water-Soluble Vitamin Characteristics

  1. Not stored in fat
  2. “Pee out”
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60
Q

What are the four fat-soluble vitamins?

“All Kittens Eat Dinner”

A

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

  1. Vitamin A
  2. Vitamin K
  3. Vitamin E
  4. Vitamin D

“All Kittens Eat Dinner”

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61
Q

What are the two water-soluble vitmans?

“Clear Blue”

A

Water-Soluble Vitamins

  1. Vitamin C
  2. Vitamin B

“Clear Blue”

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62
Q

What is the type & function of:

Vitamin K

A

Vitamin K

  1. ​Type: Fat-soluble vitamin
  2. Function: blood clotting
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63
Q

What is the type & function of:

Vitamin E

A

Vitamin E

  1. Type: fat-soluble vitamin
  2. Function: collagen synthesis
    1. ​“elastic skin”
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64
Q

What is the type & function of:

Vitamin D

A

Vitamin D

  1. Type: fat-soluble vitamin
  2. Function: calcium absorption
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65
Q

What is the type & function of:

Vitamin A

A

Vitamin A

  1. Type: fat-soluble vitamin
  2. Function: vision pigments
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66
Q

What is the type & function of:

Vitamin C

A

Vitamin C

  1. Type: water-soluble vitamin
  2. Function: immunity
    1. ​Immune cells
    2. Co-factor for metabolism
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67
Q

What is the type & function of:

Vitamin B

A

Vitamin B

  1. Type: water-soluble vitamin
  2. Function: cofactor for metabolism
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68
Q

Trace the pathway a kidney stone would take from where it was formed until it leaves the body

A

Kidney→Ureter→Bladder→Urethra

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69
Q

What is the color of normal urine?

A

The color of normal urine ranges from colorless to amber yellow

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70
Q

If urine has a pinkish color what would that indicate for someone with a kidney stone?

A
  • The pinkish color of urine from a patient with a kidney stone indicates bleeding and damage of the ureters.
  • The kidney stone’s sharp edges are damaging the ureter’s walls as it is passing down to the bladder.
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71
Q

What causes kidney stones?

A

Causes of Kidney Stones

  1. Dehydration (low H2O)
  2. Kidney disease
  3. High protein diet
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72
Q

If a kidney stone is not small enough to pass on its own, what are two options a doctor could do to remove the large kidney stone.

A

The doctor would have two options:

  1. Break up the stone into smaller pieces so it can pass
    1. Shockwave/ ultrasound therapy
    2. Laser therapy
    3. Fluid therapy
  2. Surgically remove the stone
    1. Surgery
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73
Q

What substances are able to enter the nephron of the kidney? How do you know?

“Some Uricorns Use Paint With Glitter”

A

Sustances that enter the nephron are small molecules:

  1. Sodium (Na+)
  2. Urea
  3. Uric acid
  4. Potassium (K+)
  5. Water (H2O)
  6. Glucose (C6H12O6)

“Some Unicorns Use Paint With Glitter”

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74
Q

What substances are not able to enter the nephron of the kidney? How do you know?

“Alice’s White Rabbit”

A

Large molecules are not able to enter the nephron:

  1. Albumin
  2. WBC’s
  3. RBC’s
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75
Q

What substances are reabsorbed into the blood stream from the kidney? What processes moves these substances?

“Water Buffalos”

“All Penguins Skate Gleefully”

A

Reabsorbed substances are:

  1. Water→passive transport
  2. Bicarbonate (HCO3-)→passive transport
  3. Amino acids→active transport
  4. Potassium→active transport
  5. Sodium→active transport
  6. Glucose→active transport

“Water Buffalos” = passive

“All Penguins Skate Gleefully” = active

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76
Q

What substances are secreted (pumped) out of the blood into the kidney? What processes moves these substances?

“Unicorns Wander Unconcerned”

“Prince Harry Speaks Properly”

A

Secreted (pumped out) substances are:

  1. Urea→passive transport
  2. Water→passive transport
  3. Uric acid→passive transport
  4. Poisons/drugs→active transport (secreted)
  5. H+ ions→active transport (secreted)
  6. Sodium→active transport
  7. Potassium→active transport
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77
Q

What are the waste products found in urine?

A

Waste Products in Urine

  1. Urea (passive transport)
  2. Uric acid (passive transport)
  3. *Poisons/drugs (active transport)
  4. *H+ ions (active transport)

*Secreted

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78
Q

What happens to the acidity of urine as it moves through the kidney?

A

As urine moves through the kidney the urine’s pH becomes lower due to:

  1. H+ ions are being secreted into the urine
  2. Bicarbonate (HCO3-) is being absorbed into the blood stream
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79
Q

Why are salt and water levels variable in urine? How are these levels controlled?

A
  • The salt and water levels vary in urine due to diet and environment
  • Salt and water levels are controlled by these hormones:
    1. ADH (retains water)
      1. Reabsorbs H2O from urine
    2. Aldosterone
      1. Reabsorbs salts from urine
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80
Q

How would you classify this girl’s acid-base status?

A

Respiratory Acidosis

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81
Q

In the pathway of sperm, what organ is between the epididymis and the prostate?

A

Vas Deferens

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82
Q

What is the function of the vas deferens?

A

Vas deferens = sperm highway/ transport tube

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83
Q

Will the nurse’s mistake increase or decrease the “saltiness” of the interstitual fluid?

A

Increase

  • The patient is recieving saline solution that is 4x saltier than it should have been.
  • This will make the interstitual fluid hypertonic (has a greater solute concentration)
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84
Q

Given your knowledge of osmosis, will this cause the cells in the body to increase or decrease in size? Explain your answer?

A

The cells will decrease in size (shrink)

  • The interstitial fluid is four times the concentration than the body cells
    • The IV solution is hypertonic
    • The RBC’s are hypotonic
  • Osmoss is the movement of water molecules from low to high solute concentrations.
    • Since the body cells (RBC’s) are hypotonic the water in them will move out, causing them to shrink
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85
Q

Why does this patient have pitting edema and inspiratory rales?

A
  • The water molecules are moving out of the body cells and going to the higher solute concentration in the interstitial fluid.
  • Therefore, the fluid is accumulating around the body cells, but not going into the cells.
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86
Q

How would this increase in salt load affect the patient’s blood-aldosterone level? Why?

A

Decrease aldosterone = Decrease Na+ reabsorpotion= Increase Urine

  • In order to maintain homeostasis, the increase in salt will need to be excreted out.
  • The body will urinate more by decreasing the hormone aldosterone which causes the sodium channels to be removed, thereby a decrease in sodium reabsorption
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87
Q

How would the body try to compensate for the girl’s acid-base imbalance?

A

Metabolic Compensation

  • Decrease H+ by secreting out (peeing acid out)
  • Increase HCO3- by reabsorbing in kidneys
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88
Q

How would you classify her acid-base disturbance?

A

Metabolic Alkalosis

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89
Q

Why might excessive vomitting cause her particular acid-base disturbance?

A

The excessive vomitting causes the body to lose acidity, thus increasing pH.

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90
Q

How would the body compensate for this acid-base disturbance?

A

Respiratory Compensation (left shift)

  • Breathing slower (hypoventilation) in order to retain CO2 thereby increasing H+ blood acidity
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91
Q

What organs does the sperm travel for its passage?

A

Passage of Sperm

  • Produced in the testes → stored in epididymis → transported in vas deferens → male urethra during ejaculation
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92
Q
  1. What is the function of the testes?
  2. Are the testes internal or external?
A

Testes

  1. Function: spermatogenesis (produces sperm) & testosterone
  2. Internal
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93
Q
  1. What is the function of the epididymis?
  2. Is the epididymis internal or external?
A

Epididymis

  1. Function: sperm storage and maturation
    1. “Sperm college”
  2. Internal
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94
Q
  1. What is the function of the vas deferens?
  2. Are the vas deferens internal or external?
A

Vas Deferens

  1. Function: transports sperm
    1. “Sperm highway”
  2. Internal
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95
Q
  1. What is the function of the scrotum?
  2. Is the scrotum internal or external?
A

Scrotum

  1. Function: temperature control for testes
  2. External
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96
Q
  1. What is the function of the seminal vesicles?
  2. Are the seminal vesicles internal or external?
A

Seminal Vesicles (behind bladder)

  1. Function: makes fluid (semen)
    1. Clotting factor
    2. Mucus
    3. Buffer
    4. Sugar
  2. Internal
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97
Q
  1. What is the function of the prostate gland?
  2. Is the prostate gland internal or external?
A

Prostate Gland

  1. Function: makes fluids (semen
    1. Activation
    2. Mucus
    3. Buffer
    4. Clot buster
  2. Internal
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98
Q
  1. What is the function of the bulbo-urethral/ Cowper’s gland?
  2. Is the bulbo-urethral/ Cowper’s gland internal or external?
A

Bulbo-urethral/ Cowper’s gland

  1. Function: makes fluids
    1. Mucus
    2. Buffer
  2. Internal
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99
Q
  1. What is the function of the penis?
  2. Is the penis internal or external?
A

Penis

  1. Function: copulation and urination
  2. External
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100
Q
  1. What is the function of the corpora cavernosa?
  2. Is the corpora cavernosa internal or external?
A

Corpora Cavernosa

  1. Function: erectile tissues for penetration
    1. Structures within the penis
  2. External
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101
Q
  1. What is the function of the corpus spongiosum?
  2. Is the corpus spongiosum internal or external?
A

Corpus Spongiosum

  1. Function: erectile tissues around the urethra
  2. External
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102
Q

The seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbo-urethral glands are considered to be “accessory glands” because they do not directly make sperm. What do these glands do and why is it necessary?

A

Fluids Made By the Glands

  1. Seminal vesicles
    1. ​Sugar (glucose)
    2. Buffer
    3. Mucus
    4. Clotting factor
  2. Prostate gland
    1. ​Buffer
    2. Mucus
    3. Clot buster (allows the sperm to swim with 20 min. delay)
    4. Activator (tells the sperm to swim)
  3. Cowper’s/bulbo-urethral gland
    1. ​Mucus
    2. Buffer
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103
Q

What type of fluid is made by the seminal vesicles?

A

Seminal Vesicles

  1. ​Sugar (glucose)
  2. Buffer
  3. Mucus
  4. Clotting factor
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104
Q

What type of fluid is made by the prostate gland?

A

Prostate Gland

  1. ​Buffer
  2. Mucus
  3. Clot buster (allows the sperm to swim with 20 min. delay)
  4. Activator (tells the sperm to swim)
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105
Q

What type of fluid is made by the Cowper’s/bulbo-urethral gland?

A

Cowper’s/Bulbo-urethral Gland

  1. ​Mucus
  2. Buffer
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106
Q

How does blood flow relate to an erection?

A
  1. The penis contains three elongated cylinders of erectile tissue
    1. 2 corpora cavernosa
    2. 1 corpora spongiosum
  2. The erectile tissues enlarge with blood during sexual excitement, which causes the penis to become rigid and enlarged
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107
Q
  1. What is the function of the ovaries?
  2. Are the ovaries internal or external?
A

Ovaries

  1. Function: produces oocytes (egg cells) and hormones (estrogen and progesterone)
  2. Internal
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108
Q

What does homologous means?

A

Similiar as

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109
Q

Where does ovulation occur?

A

Ovary

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110
Q

Where does conception/fertilization occur?

A

Fallopian tubes

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111
Q

Where does pregnancy occur?

A

Uterus

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112
Q

What does it mean when your text says that “the clitoris is homologous to the penis and the labia are homologous to the scrotum?

A
  • Male and female organs develop from the same embyronic structures, therefore are homologous
    • Thus, the penis is homologous to the clitoris and the scrotum is homologous to the labia majora
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113
Q

What organs of the female are considered part of the vulva?

A

Vulva (external genitals of female)

  1. Labia majora
  2. Labia minora
  3. Clitoris
  4. Glands (vestibular)
  5. Vagina
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114
Q

What organs of the female are considered part of the vestibule?

A

Vestibule (“entrance”)

  1. Labia minora (not labia majora)
  2. Clitorus
  3. Vaginal orifice
  4. Vestibular glands
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115
Q

What organs of the female are considered part of the perineum?

A

Perineum (“peri-care”)

  1. Vulva (external genitals of female)
    1. Labia majora
    2. Labia minora
    3. Clitoris
    4. Glands (vestibular)
    5. Vagina
  2. Anus
  3. Mons pubis
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116
Q
  1. What is the function of the fallopian tubes?
  2. Are the fallopian tubes internal or external?
A

Fallopian Tubes

  1. ​Function: ​Oocyte transport
  2. Internal
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117
Q
  1. What is the function of the uterus?
  2. Is the uterus internal or external?
A

Uterus

  1. Function: gestation (“baby home”)
  2. Internal
118
Q
  1. What is the function of the cervix?
  2. Are the cervix internal or external?
A

Cervix (“neck of uterus”)

  1. Function: gatekeeper
    1. Regulates what comes in and out of the uterus
  2. Internal
119
Q
  1. What is the function of the vagina?
  2. Is the vagina internal or external?
A

Vagina (“transitional organ”)

  1. Function: birth canal & organ of sexual intercourse
  2. Both internal and external
120
Q
  1. What is the function of the labia minora?
  2. Is the labia minora internal or external?
A

Labia Minora

  1. Function: protection, aesthetics, pleasure
  2. External
121
Q
  1. What is the function of the labia majora?
  2. Is the labia majora internal or external?
A

Labia Majora

  1. Function: protection, aesthetics, pleasure
  2. External
122
Q
  1. What is the function of the vestibular glands?
  2. Are the vestibular glands internal or external?
A

Vestibular Glands

  1. Function: lubrication
  2. External
123
Q
  1. What is the function of the clitoris?
  2. Is the clitoris internal or external?
A

Clitoris

  1. Function: pleasure/ sexual arousal
  2. External
124
Q

What is the diagnosis? How do you know?

A

Prostate Cancer

  • Hard nodule on prostate gland
  • Elevated PSA (prostate specific antigen)
125
Q

How would this man’s discorder affect his urinary and reproductive abilities?

A
  • The patient’s urinary output and reproductive abilities would decrease because the enlarged prostate gland is obstructing the urethra.
    • This makes voiding harder and the enlarged prostate gland is smashing his ejaculatory ducts, therefore causing a decrease in his reproductive abilities.
  • The patient may also have difficulty feeling his penis, due to the enlarged prostate nodule compressing the penile arteries and nerves.
126
Q

Describe a mechanism by which a drug could lower testosterone levels in the human body.

A

Increase inhibition→Decrease GnRH→Decreases FSH & Decreases LH→Decreases testerone

*Decrease FSH stops spermatogenesis

*Decrease LH turns off testerone levels in testes

127
Q

Describe a mechanism by which a drug could increase _testosterone levels i_n the human body.

A

Decrease inhibition→Increase GnRH→Increases FSH & Increases LH→Increases testerone

*Increase FSH spermatogenesis (makes sperm)

*Increase LH turns on testerone levels in testes

128
Q

Why would castration reduce testosterone? Would all of a castrated man’s testosterone be gone?

A
  • Castration is the surgical removal of the testicles, causing testosterone to no longer be produced.
129
Q

Why does castration reduce prostate growth?

A
  • Testosterone is a growth hormone for the male sex/reproductive organs.
  • Castration removes the source of testosterone, thereby not testosterone is used to stimulate the prostate gland to grow.
130
Q

How would castration affect the man’s ability to have an erection or ejaculate? Why?

A

The castration causes the man’s body not to make testosterone, thereby he will not have a sex drive.

131
Q

What is the diagnosis of this woman? What is wrong with her?

A

Endometriosis

  • The uterine lining cells are outside the uterus causing them to expand and contract, thinking that the tissue around them is the uterus
132
Q

What does “ectopic endometrial tissue” mean?

A

Ectopic Endometrial Tissue

  • Ectopic means outside/ wrong place
  • Ectopic endomentrial tissue is tissue that thinks its uterine tissue which is not in the uterus but in the wrong place
133
Q

Could ectopic endometrial tissue exist outside of the uterus? Why or why not? How would it get there?

A
  1. Retrograde Movement
    1. The endometrial tissue broke off but instead of moving down, it moved back through the fallopian tubes and attached to the wrong tissues
  2. Genetic Disorder
134
Q

Why would a gonadotropin inhibitor (like Danazol) help this woman?

A

Increase inhibition→Decrease GnRH→Decreases FSH & Decreases LH→Decrease estrogen & Increase progesterone

  • Inhibitor: something that stops something
  • The GnRH inhibitor would decrease the estrogen and increase the progesterone
    • Making the body believe that its pregnant (luteal phase), thus ceasing menstrual cycles
135
Q

How does Danazol (GnRH inhibitor) stop ovulation?

A

Increase inhibition→Decrease GnRH→Decreases FSH & Decreases LH→Decrease estrogen & Increase progesterone

  • Danazol makes the body “permanently luteal” thereby making the hypothalamus stop “ordering eggs” for ovulation
136
Q

Would oral contraceptive also work? Why or why not?

A

Increase inhibition→Decrease GnRH→Decreases FSH & Decreases LH→Decrease estrogen & Increase progesterone

  • Yes because it minics hormones (making the body luteal)
137
Q

Abstinence

A

No sex (other)

138
Q

Spermicide

A

Sperm motility

139
Q

Condoms or Diaphragm

A

Ejaculation (condom) and/or sperm motility

140
Q

Oral Contraceptives (Birth Control Pills)

141
Q

Injectable Contraceptives (Depo Provera)

142
Q

Withdrawal aka “pull and pray”

A

Ejaculation

143
Q

Natural Family Planning

144
Q

Intrauterine Device (IUD) (without hormones)

A

Implantation

145
Q

Vasectomy or Tubal Ligation

A

Ejaculation and ovulation

“cut the highway”

146
Q
  1. Are there any contraceptive that are hormonal agonists?
  2. What about hormonal antagonists?
  3. Why?
A
  1. Hormonal agonists (initiator/increases)
    1. GnRH inhibitors (females)
      1. Oral contracentives (females) which increase progesterone and decrease estrogen causing the body to be luteal (thinks its pregnant)
  2. Hormonal antagonists (inhibitor/blockers)
    1. GnRH antagonist (males): blocks GnRH, thereby blocking FSH and LH, stopping spermatogenesis or secondary male characteristics
147
Q

Are there contraceptives that act on the gonads? What about the pituitary gland?What about the hypothalamus?

A

Oral contraceptives (“the pill”) acts on the ovaries, increasing inhibition which then tells the pituitary gland to decrease FSH and decrease LH.

Turns of “managment” the hypothalamus

148
Q

What are the physical signs of a woman’s ovulation?

A
  • Increase in cervical mucus and cervical fluid
  • Changes in vascular temperature
149
Q

If a woman took a blood test to monitor her hormones, what would she see that would prove she’s ovulating? What hormones would be doing what?

A
  • The woman’s estrogen levels peak during ovulation
  • There would be an increase of LH & FSH indicating ovulation
150
Q

Why is only ovulation time important for this method of contraception?

A

During ovulation time the cervix is open and the oocyte is present, thereby working in conjunction for conception to occur

151
Q

If sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) were an issue, what kinds of contraception would be the best? Why?

A

Condoms because they are barriers

152
Q

If a man wanted to take a hormonal contraceptive, what hormone(s) could he take to decrease his sperm count without affecting his sex characteristics or sex drive?

A

The hormonal contraceptive would have to turn off the FSH, which produces sperm, but not the LH which contributes to testosterone and secondary sex characterisitvs.

GnRH antagonist with testerone

153
Q

What are the three (3) functions of the urinary system?

A

Functions of the Urinary System (in order):

  1. Filteration
    1. The step from the blood to the nephron
      1. Takes small molecules
  2. Reabsorption
    1. The step from the nephron to the blood
      1. “U turn”
  3. Secretion
    1. The step from the blood to the nephron
  4. All three steps produce urine
154
Q

What is the nephron?

A

The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney

155
Q

What is happening during filteration of the nephron?

A

Filteration

  • First step
  • The step from the blood to the nephron
    • The Bowman’s capsule filters out RBC from the glomerulus so only plasma and small molecule enter
156
Q

What does the PCT secrete and how?

A

PCT Secretions

  1. H+ (active transport)
  2. Poisons/ drugs (active transport)
157
Q

What function does the PCT perform for the urinary sytem?

A

Reabsorption & Secretion

  1. PCT starts to filter out plasma
  2. Reabsorbs
    1. Na+ (active transport)
    2. HCO3- (passive transport)
    3. H2O (passive transport)
    4. C6H12O6 (active transport)
    5. Amino acids (active transport)
  3. Secretes
    1. H+ (active transport)
    2. Poisons/ drugs (active transport)
158
Q

What substances does PCT reabsorb and how?

A

PCT Reabsorbs

  • Na+ (active transport)
  • HCO3- (passive transport)
  • H2O (passive transport)
  • C6H12O6 (active transport)
  • Amino acids (active transport)
159
Q

What does the descending limb of the Hoop of Henle reabsorb and how?

A

Descending Limb Hoop of Henle

  • Reabsorbs only water with aqua-porins
160
Q

What does the ascending limb of the Hoop of Henle reabsorb and how?

A

Ascending Limb for Loop of Henle

  • ONLY Reabsorbs
    • Na+ (both active & passive transport due to osmotic gradient)
    • H2O
161
Q

What is the function of the Loop of Henle?

A

Function of Loop of Henle

  • Only reabsorption
    • Descending limb
      • Water with aqua-porins
    • Ascending limb
      • Water (passive transport)
      • Na+ (both active & passive transport)
        • Due to osmotic gradient
162
Q

What is the function of the DCT?

A

DCT Function

  • Reabsorption & Secretion
  • DCT finishes filteration by reabsorbing water and nutrients
    • Na+ (active transport)
      • HCO3- (active transport)
  • Secretions
    • H+ (active transport)
    • Drugs/poisons (active transport)
163
Q

What does the DCL secrete and how?

A

DCL Secretions

  • H+ (active transport)
  • Drugs/poisons (active transport)
164
Q

What does the DCL reabsorb and how?

A

DCL Reabsorption

  • Water (passive transport)
  • Na+ (active transport)
  • HCO3- (active transport)
165
Q

What is the purpose of the collecting duct of the nephron?

A

Collecting Duct

  • “Last Minute” Reabsorption
    • Water (passive transport)
    • Na+ (active transport)
    • Urea (active transport)
  • Disposes of urine
166
Q

What is the purpose of the glomerulus?

A

Filteration

  • Where the blood and the nephron meet
167
Q

How does water get reabsorbed from the nephron back into the bloodstream?

A

Aqua-porins

168
Q

What is the overall functions(s) of the kidney?

A

Function of the Kidney

  1. Cleans the blood of waste, toxins, nitrogenous wastes (uric acid, urea, ammonia)
  2. Reabsorbs H2O
  3. Reabsorbs salts and nutrients
  4. Regulates the osmosity of blood
169
Q

What is are the nephrons and its purpose?

A

Nephrons

  • The structural and functional unit of the kidneys
    • Microscopic tubes
  • Purpose: to filter waste from the bloodstream
170
Q

What are the signs that there is damage to the filteration membrane of the nephrons?

A

Damage to the Filteration Membrane

  1. Big molecules that are not normally filtered through including:
    1. Increased protein in urine
    2. Presense of blood cells
171
Q

What are the molecules that pass through the filternation membrane?

A

Small molecules including:

  • H2O
  • Na+
  • C6H12O6
  • Urea
  • Uric acid
  • Drugs/poisons
  • HCO3-
  • Amino Acids
172
Q

What is the relationship between blood pressure and blood volume to the nephron?

A

Blood pressure is pushing the blood into the nephron

The amount of blood going into the nephron depends on blood pressure

173
Q

If blood pressure is low what does that mean for the blood volume going into the nephrons?

A

Low BP = Low Blood Volume to Nephrons

Direct Relationship

174
Q

If blood pressure is high what does that mean for the blood volume going into the nephrons?

A

High Blood Pressure = High Blood Volume to Nephrons

Direct Relationship

175
Q

What is GFR?

A

GFR = glomerular filteration rate

  • The amount/rate of filteration of blood to the nephron
  • Mechanicism of homeostasis
  • Normal GFR ~125 mL/minute
176
Q

If blood pressure is low, what is the rate for GFR?

What mechanicism of homeostasis is used to change GFR?

A

Low blood pressure = Low GFR

  • Vasodilation = more fluid in
    • The afferent arteriole dilates in order to bring GFR into homeostasis
177
Q

If blood pressure is high, what is the rate for GFR?

What mechanicism of homeostasis is used to change GFR?

A

High blood pressure = high GFR

  • Vasoconstriction = less fluid in
    • Constriction of the afferent arteriole at the nephron causes the kidneys to have less fluid go in
178
Q

If you were a kidney stone, what organ would you enter after you left the kidney?

A

Ureter→Urinary bladder→Urethra

180
Q

Which of the substances in the table moves entirely by passive process? List all that apply.

181
Q

Taking this quiz has caused your blood pressure to go up.

What will your hight blood pressure do to your GFR (glomerulat filteration rate) in the short term, before compensation?

A

High blood pressure = High GFR

GFR goes up when BP is high before compensation

182
Q

Taking this quiz has caused your blood pressure to go up.

How will your body compensate for the change in GFR, specifically?

A

High blood pressure = High GFR

Vasoconstriction: less fluid in

183
Q

How do the kidneys use vasoconstriction regulate GFR?

A

High Blood Volume= High blood pressure = High GFR

  • Vasoconstriction
    • As the BP level increase, the GFR also increase causing the kidneys to constrict the vessels in order for the BP and GFR levels to go back to normal
184
Q
A

Low Blood Volume= Low blood pressure = Low GFR

  • Vasodilation
  • As the BP level decreases, the GFR also decrease causing the kidneys to dilate the vessels in order for the BP and GFR levels to go back to normal
185
Q

What organ structure has sodium channels and aqua-porins?

A

The nephrons have sodium channels and aqua-porins

186
Q

How does an increase of aldosterone affect sodium reabsorption?

A

Increase Aldosterone = Increase Na+ reabsorption

  • More sodium needs to be reabsorbed from the urine to the body tissues
  • More sodium channels are needed
187
Q

What is the relationship between aldosterone levels and sodium reabsorption?

A

Sodium reabsoption is based on aldosterone levels

Direct Relationship

188
Q

How does a decrease of aldosterone affect sodium reabsorption?

A

Decrease aldosterone = Decrease sodium reabsorption

  • Less sodium needs to be reabsorbed into the tissues
  • Most of the sodium is excreted out into the urine
  • Less sodium channels
189
Q

What is the relationship between ADL levels and water reabsorption?

A

Water reabsoption is based on ADL levels

Direct Relationship

190
Q

How does a decrease of ADH affect water reabsorption?

A

Decrease ADH = Decrease water reabsorption

  • Less water needs to be reabsorbed into the tissues
  • Most of the water is excreted out into the urine
  • Less aqua-porins
191
Q

How does an increase of ADH affect water reabsorption?

A

Increase ADH = Increase water reabsoption

  • More water needs to be reabsorbed from the urine to the body tissues
  • More aquaporins
193
Q

What hormone control sodium reabsorption in the nephron and how?

A

Aldosterone level determine sodium channels

194
Q

What hormone determines water reabsorption in the nephron and how?

A

ADH levels determine aqua-porins used

195
Q

What is dehydration? How does the body compensate for dehydration?

A

Dehydration = loss of water

  • The body compensates for dehydration by:
    • Increasing aldosterone levels= Increases sodium reabsorption via sodium channels
    • Increasing ADH levels = Increases water reabsorption via aquaporins
  • The sodium follows the water via osmosis
  • Causes less urine
196
Q

What is over-hydration? How does the body compensate for over-hydration?

A

(Over)hydration= too much water

  • The body compensates for over-hydration by:
    • Decreasing aldosterone levels = decreases sodium reabsorption = less sodium channels
    • Decreases ADL levels = decreases water reabsorption = less aqua-porins
  • The sodium follows the water via osmosis
  • More (clear) urine
197
Q

What is osmosis?

A

The movement of water

  • A type of diffusion
  • Osmosis is a type of passive transport
  • Water will move to the higher concentration of solutes
198
Q

What does it mean when a solution is hyertonic?

A

Hypertonic= has a higher concentration of solutes

Makes the water molecules move to the higher concentration via osmosis

199
Q

What does it mean when a solution is hypotonic?

A

Hypotonic = less concentration of solutes

Water moves to the high concentration (hypertonic) from the less concentrated area (hypotonic)

200
Q

What does ICF? What is an example of ICF?

A
  • ICF = intra-cellular fluid
  • Cytoplasm
201
Q

What is ECF? What is an example of ECF?

A

ECF= extra-cellular fluid

  • Plasma (around the cells) & interstitual fluid
202
Q
A

Metabolic Acidosis

203
Q
A

Respiratory alkalosis

204
Q
A

Metabolic acidosis with partial respiratory compensation

205
Q
A

Metabolic alkalosis with partial respiratory compensation

206
Q
A

Respiratory acidosis (pH closest to acid even though normal)

207
Q
A

Metabolic alkalosis (pH closest to base even though normal)

208
Q

Acid-Base Balance

pH 7.31

CO2 49

HCO3- 24

A

Respiratory Acidosis

209
Q

Acid-Base Balance

pH 7.50

CO2 37

HCO3- 29

A

Metabolic Alkalosis

210
Q

A food is digested only in the stomach and small intestine. Is the food a carbohydrate, protein, or fat?

211
Q

Does the mouth participate in physical digestion?

A

Yes, chewing

212
Q

Does the esophagus participate in physical digestion?

A

No, just moves the food to the stomach

213
Q

Does the small intestine participate in physical digestion?

A

Yes, mixes the food/chyme

214
Q

What is another name for the small intestine?

215
Q

What is another name for the large intestine?

216
Q

Does the large intestine participate in physical digestion?

217
Q

Does the mouth participate in chemical digestion?

A

Yes via saliva

218
Q

Does the esophagus participate in chemical digestion?

219
Q

Does the stomach participate in chemical digestion

A

Yes (*Vomit)

220
Q

Does the small intestine participate in chemical digestion?

221
Q

Does the large intestine participate in chemical digestion?

222
Q

What is the product of starch?

223
Q

What is the substrate of sugar?

224
Q

What is the product of fat?

A

Fatty acids

225
Q

What is the substrate of fatty acids?

226
Q

What is the product of protein?

A

Amino acids

227
Q

What is the substrate of amino acids?

228
Q

Which enzymes are made by the brush border?

“Small Dotted Puppies Must Learn Commands”

A
  1. Surcase (Sugars→Simple Sugars)
  2. Dex-trin-ase (Sugars→Simple Sugars)
  3. Pepti-dase (Proteins→Amino Acids)
  4. Malt-ase (Sugars→Simple Sugars)
  5. Lact-ase (Sugars→Simple Sugars)
  6. Carboxy-pepti-dase (Proteins→Amino Acids)
229
Q

Which enzymes are present in the small intestine?

“Small Dotted Puppies Must Learn Commands And Tiny Cats Listen.”

A
  1. Brush border (lining of SI)
  • Surcase (Sugars→Simple Sugars)
  • Dex-trin-ase (Sugars→Simple Sugars)
  • Pepti-dase (Proteins→Amino Acids)
  • Malt-ase (Sugars→Simple Sugars)
  • Lact-ase (Sugars→Simple Sugars)
  • Carboxy-pepti-dase (Proteins→Amino Acids)
  1. Pancreas
    1. Amylase (Starch→Sugar)
    2. Try-p-sin (Protein →Amino Acids)
    3. Chymo-try-p-sin (Protein →Amino Acids)
    4. Lip-ase (Fats →Fatty Acids)
230
Q

Which enzymes are made in the pancreas and where are they used?

“And Tiny Cats Listen”

A

Used in the small intestine

  • Amylase (Starch→Sugar)
  • Try-p-sin (Protein →Amino Acids)
  • Chymo-try-p-sin (Protein →Amino Acids)
  • Lip-ase (Fats →Fatty Acids)
231
Q

What digestive organs use amylase? Where is its source? What is amylases’ substrates and products?

A

Amylase (Starch →Sugar)

  1. Mouth (salivary glands)
  2. Small intestine (pancreas)
232
Q

What digestive organs use lipase? Where is its source? What is amylases’ substrates and products?

A

Lipase (Fats→Fatty Acids)

  1. Mouth (salivary glands)
  2. Stomach (Stomach)
  3. Small intestines (pancreas)
233
Q

What enzymes digest protein? What is the substrate and products of protein?

“Please Try Crispy Peppered Chicken”

A

Protein→Amino Acids

  1. Pepsin
  2. Typ-sin
  3. Chymo-typ-sin
  4. Pepti-dase
  5. Carb-oxy-pepti-dase
234
Q

Which enzyme digest fats? What is fat’s substrate and products?

A

Fats→Fatty Acids

  1. Lipase
235
Q

What are the (5) steps for fat absorption?

A

Fat Absorption

  1. Brush border of SI
  2. Chylo-microns (“fat carries”
    1. Carry fats due to fats being hydrophobic
  3. Lacteal
    1. Capillary of lymph
  4. Subclavian vein
  5. Blood stream
236
Q

What enzymes digest carbohydrates? What are their substrates and products?

“A Dog Sniffs My Leg”

A

Carbohydrates→Starch→Sugars

  1. Starch→Sugar
    1. Amylase
  2. Sugar→Simple Sugars
    1. Dex-trin-ase
    2. Sucrase
    3. Malt-ase
    4. Lact-ase
237
Q

What two things do fats need in order to be absorbed?

A

Since fats are hydrophobic (water fearing) they need chylo-microns (“fat carriers”) and a different route (lymph)

238
Q

What is a chylo-micron?

A

“Fat carriers” for the hydrophobic fat to travel to through the lymph for absorption

239
Q

What is bile?

A

Bile is a fat emulsifier which makes the fat molecules smaller, and easier for absorption

“Soap”

240
Q

Is bile an enzyme?

A

No, its an emulsifier

241
Q

Hx

242
Q

SOB

A

Shortness of breath

243
Q

c/o

A

Complain of

244
Q

sputum

A

mucus in lungs

245
Q

CXR

A

chest x-ray

246
Q

bilateral infiltrates

A

“crud” in both lungs

247
Q

HTN

A

hyertension

248
Q

DM I

A

diabetes mellitus type I

249
Q

109/52

A

blood pressure

systolic/diastolic

250
Q

94

A

pulse rate

251
Q

24

A

respiration rate

252
Q

38.5

A

temperature in degrees Celsius

253
Q

95%

A

Oxygen saturation

“pulse ox”

254
Q

What does the medication insulin do?

A

Insulin lwers the blood sugar level for patients with DM I by putting the glucise into the cells, out of the blood stream

255
Q

What does the medication ACE inhibitor do for the patient?

A

Lowers BP by being an -ACE antagonists

Stops the BP from going up

256
Q

What does the medication diuretic do for the patient?

A

Lowers blood pressure by lowering blood volume

  • Makes the patient urinate more, to release the excess fluids and salts
257
Q

Oocyte

258
Q

Primary oocyte

A

1o oocyte

  • Oocyte before meiosis
  • Diploid
259
Q

Secondary oocyte

A

2o oocyte

  • Oocyte after meoisis
  • Haploid
260
Q

Follicle

A

Cells around the oocyte before ovulation

  • “the nest around the egg”
261
Q

What happens to a woman’s oocytes and follicles once she reaches puberty?

A

Once a woman starts puberty her eggs (oocytes) and follicles grow larger

262
Q

What is ovulation and when does it occur in the menstrual cycle?

A

Ovulation = releasing of the oocyte from the follicle

  • Occurs in the middle of the menstrual cycle when estrogen levels have peaked
263
Q

What is the difference between the male reproductive cycle and the female’s reproductive cycle in terms of making new gametes?

A

The male reproductive system operates on a daily basis, while the female reproductive system operates on a monthly basis.

264
Q

What is the corpus lutem and when does it occur in the menstrual cycle?

A

Corpys lutem = empty follicle (“empty nest”)

  • Occurs after ovulation
265
Q

What is the corpus albicans and when does it occur in the menstrual cycle?

A

Corpus albicans= the empty shrunken follicle that became scar tissue

  • After the luteal phase
266
Q

If an embryo were exposed to Warfarin (an anti-coagulant rat poison) only during the first trimester, what might happen to the embyro? What about exposure only during the second trimester?

267
Q

If a mother has low O2 saturation, how will her body compensate for the fetus?

A

Low O2 saturation = Increase EPO = Increase RBC

268
Q

If a mother has high O2 saturation, how will her body compensate for the fetus?

A

High O2 saturation = Decrease EPO = Decrease RBC

269
Q

What is the placenta?

A

Placenta = organ that cares care of the body

270
Q

What is the function of the placenta?

A
  1. The placenta supplies nutrient exchange between mother and baby
  2. Makes hormones (endocrine organ)
271
Q

What type of molecules can pass through the placenta?

A

Small molecules

  • Salts (sodium & potassium)
  • Gases (CO2 &O2)
  • Glucose
  • Amino acids
  • Hormones
272
Q

When does the embryo have a placenta?

A

At 3 weeks

274
Q

When you are 3 weeks pregnant what does that entail?

A

Embryo with placenta

275
Q

What is the function of the placental hormones?

A

The placental hormones are secreted by the placenta to maintain pregnancy

276
Q

What are the (5) placental hormones and their functions?

A
  1. Placental estrogen
    1. Maintains endometrium
    2. “Thick & bloody”
  2. Placental progesterone
    1. Mains endometruim
    2. “Thick & bloody”
    3. Calms uterus
  3. Placental relaxin
    1. Relaxes cartilage (pubic symphysis, vertebrae, feet, joints)
    2. To make room for baby
  4. Placental lactogen
    1. Increases breast activity (makes boobs grow)
    2. Increase fat usage in mom
    3. Increase blood sugar for the baby’s growth
      1. Gestational diabetes
  5. Placental CRH (corti-co-troph-in releasing hormone)
    1. Increases ACTH = Increase Cortison = Increases lung development + Increases estrogen (to maintain endometrium)
277
Q

What is the function of the placental hormone estrogen?

A

Placental Estrogen

  • Maintains the endometrium
    • “Thick & bloody”
    • Calms the uterus
278
Q

What is the function of the placental hormone progesterone?

A

Placental Progesterone

  • Maintains the endometrium
    • “Thick & bloody”
    • Calms the uterus
279
Q

What is the function of the placental hormone relaxin?

A

Placental Relaxin

  • Relaxes cartilage to “make room for baby”
    • Pubic symphysis
    • Vertebrae
    • Feet
    • Joints
280
Q

What is the function of the placental hormone lactogen?

A

Placental Lactogen

  • Increases breast activity
    • “Makes boobs grow”
  • Increase fat usage in mom (fat metabolism)
  • Increase blood sugar for the baby’s growth
    • Gestational diabetes
281
Q

What is the function of the placental hormone CRH*?

*CRG = corti-co-troph-in releasing hormone

A

Placental CRH

  • Increases ACTH = Increase Cortisol= Increase lung development + increases estrogen (to maintain endometrium & increase blood flow to the skin)
282
Q

Explain the process of birth in terms of hormones (6 steps)

A

Birth

  1. Increase estrogen = Increase oxytocin receptors on uterine muscle → contractions
  2. Fetus pressures cervix
  3. Cervix signals the brain → hypothalamus
  4. Hypothalamus releases increase oxytocin
  5. Oxytocin → uterus contractions
  6. Placental stage = placenta is delivered= afterbirth
284
Q

What type of feedback is birth?

A

Birth = Positive feedback

Increase in oxytocin = Increase contraction = Fetus pressures cervix = cervic signals hypothalamus = increases oxytocin….

285
Q

Explain the expulsion stage of birth

A

Expulsion = positve feedback

  • Fetus pressures cervix → Cervix signals hypothalamus →Hypothalamus releases increase oxytocin → oxytocin increase ⇒uterine contractins which cause the fetus to pressure cervix
286
Q

Explain the process of lactation

A

Lactation

  1. Placental lactogen “primes” mammary glands
  2. Prolactin = Increases milk productin after birth
    1. Increases/ monitors milk levels via breast stretch
  3. Oxytocin = releases milk = “let down”
    1. Monitored by hypothalamus (limibic system)
      1. Emotions (crying, thinking) & nipple stimulation
287
Q

If a breastfeeding woman decides to wean her child, what will happen to her milk production? Explain in terms of hormones.

A

Increase in breast stretch = Decrease in milk let down (oxytocin) = Decrease prolactin = Decrease in milk production

288
Q

How can a woman who is trying to breastfeed and increase her milk production. Explain in terms of hormones.

A

Decrease in breast stretch = Increase in milk let down (oxytocin) = Increase prolactin = Increase milk production

289
Q

How does the brain monitor milk production? What hormones influence milk production?

A
  • The hypothalamus monitors milk production via breast stretch
  • The hormone prolactin is “in charge” of milk production after birth

Final Anatomy & Physiology Exam (1 decks)

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