Final Flashcards
Contingency
A dependency between events.
- An event may be stimulus contingent (dependent of the appearance of the stimulus) or response contingent (dependent on the appearance of the behavior)
Contiguity
Nearness of events in time (temporal contiguity) or space (spacial contiguity)
Operant Conditioning
- B.F. Skinner (1938)
- A learning process in which the likelihood of a specific behavior is increased or decreased through positive or negative reinforcement each time the behavior is exhibited, so that the subject comes to associate the pleasure or displeasure of the reinforcement with the behavior.
Higher-order Conditioning
A variation of Pavlovian conditioning in which a stimulus is paired, not with a US, but with a well-established CS.
Modal Action Pattern
A series of interrelated acts found in all or nearly all members of a species.
- Also called “fixed action pattern”, “species-specific behavior”, or “species-typical behavior”.
- Formally called “instincts”
- They have a strong genetic component
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
The stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
The stimulus part of a conditional reflex
- The stimulus that elicits a conditional response
Unconditioned Response (UR)
The response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Response (CR)
The response part of a conditional reflex
- The response elicited by a conditional stimulus.
Conditional Reflex
A reflex acquired through Pavlovian conditioning and consisting of a conditional stimulus and a conditional response.
Latent Inhibition
In Pavlovian conditioning, the failure of a CR to appear as a result of prior presentation of the CS in the absence of the US.
Blocking
Failure of a stimulus to become a CS when it is part of a compound stimulus that includes an effective CS.
- The effective CS is said to block the formation of a new CS.
Compound stimulus
Two or more stimuli presented simultaneously, often as a CS.
Overshadowing
Failure of a stimulus that is part of a compound stimulus to become a CS.
- The stimulus is said to be overshadowed by the stimulus that does come a CS.
Spontaneous Recovery
The sudden reappearance of a behavior following it extinction.
Habituation
A decrease in the intensity or probability of a reflex response resulting from repeated exposure to a stimulus that elicits that response.
Sensitization
An increase in the intensity or probability of a reflex response resulting from earlier exposure to a stimulus that elicits that response.
Trace Conditioning
A Pavlovian conditioning procedure in which the CS begins and ends before the US is presented.
Delayed Conditioning
A Pavlovian conditioning procedure in which the CS starts before, and then overlaps with, the US.
Simultaneous Conditioning
A Pavlovian conditioning procedure in which the CS and the US occur at the same time.
Backward Conditioning
A Pavlovian conditioning procedure in which the US precedes the CS.
Counterbalancing
Counterbalancing is a type of experimental design in which all possible orders of presenting the variables are included.
- For example,
- If you have two groups of participants:
- group 1 and group 2
- If you have two groups of participants:
- -Two levels of an independent variable
- level 1 and level 2
- You would present one possible order
- group 1 gets level 1
- group 2 gets level 2
- You would present one possible order
- Present the opposite order
- group 1 gets level 2
- group 2 gets level 1
- Present the opposite order
- This way you can measure the effects in all possible situations.
Counterconditioning
The use of Pavlovian conditioning to reverse the unwanted effects of prior conditioning.
With-in Subject Experiment
A research design in which the independent variable is made to vary at different time for the same subject.
- Thus, each subjects serves as both an experimental and control subject.
- Also called “single-subject” or “single case” experiment.
Between Subject Experiment
An experimental design in which the independent variable is made to vary across two or more groups of subjects.
- Also called “between-treatment” or “group experiment”.
Stimulus-Substitution Theory
In Pavlovian conditioning, the theory that they CS substitutes for the US.
- Assumes that the CR is essentially the same as the UR.
Rescorla-Wagner Model
A theory of Pavlovian conditioning based on the assumption that the amount of learning that can occur on a particular trial is limited by the nature of the CS and US and the amount of learning that has already occurred.
Forgetting
Deterioration in learned behavior following a period without practice.
Extinction
- In Pavlovian conditioning, the procedure of repeatedly presenting a CS without the US.
- In Operant training, the procedure of withholding the reinforcers that maintain a behavior.
Overshadowing
Failure of a stimulus that is part of a compound stimulus to become a CS.
- The stimulus is said to be overshadowed by the stimulus that does come a CS.
Sensory Preconditioning
A procedure in which two neutral stimuli are paired, after which one is repeatedly paired with a US.
- If the other stimulus is then presented alone, it may elicit a CR even though it was never paired with the US.
Pseduconditioning
The tendency of a neutral stimulus to elicit a CR when presented after a US has elicited a reflex response.
- Apparently due to sensitization.
Higher Order Conditioning
A variation of Pavlovian conditioning in which a stimulus is paired, not with a US, but with a well-established CS.
Pavlov’s Stimulus Substitution Theory of Classical Conditioning
pg 83-84
Watson’s 3 innate/instinctual fears
- fear of falling
- fear of loud noises
Conditioned Tolerance
- Refers to those instances of tolerance where it is a consequence not only of neuronal adaptations to the effects of a drug, but also involves either:
(1) associative learning in a classical (Pavlovian) conditioning situation.
(2) differential tolerance arising from the impact of contingencies of reinforcement in operant conditioning procedures.
Edward B. Twitmyer
- Graduate student at University of Pa
- 1902
- Discovered classical conditioning in US before Pavlov’s work was known of.
- Knee reflex testing
` paired a bell with release of hammer on knee to alert person blow was coming
` accidentally rang bell without hammer and person’s leg shot up
` did more with this and gave a speech about what it might mean but wasn’t paid attention to so he stopped his efforts and moved onto a different field.
Positive Reinforcement
A reinforcement procedure in which a behavior is followed by the presentation of, or an increase in the intensity of, a stimulus.
- Sometimes called “reward training”, although the term “reward” is problematic.
Negative Reinforcement
A reinforcement procedure in which a behavior is followed by the removal of, or a decrease in the intensity of, a stimulus.
- Sometimes called “escape training”
Skinner Box
- One wall has been cut away to show the inside of the box
- The food magazine and other apparatus were contained in the space outside the left panel
- Each time a rat pressed the level, it activated the good magazine, which dropped a few pellets of food into the tray
Puzzle Box
- Hungry cat
- Placed food in plain sight but out of reach
- Door that could be opened by a simple act (i.e., pulling a wire loop or stepping on a treadle)
- Cat began by performing a number of ineffective acts and got more efficient after multiple trials
Law of Effect
- The statement that behavior is a function of its consequences
- So called because the strength of a behavior depends on its past effects on the environment
- Implicit in the law is the notion that operant learning is an active process because it is usually the behavior of the organism that, directly or indirectly, produces the effect.
Primary reinforcers
Any reinforcer that is not dependent on another reinforcer for it reinforcing properties
Secondary Reinforcers
Any reinforcer that has acquired its reinforcing properties through it association with other reinforcers
- also called “conditioned reinforcer”
Dopamine
One of the brain’s major neurotransmitters and one source of a natural “high”
- It is thought to play an important role in reinforcement
Rational Unified Process
The procedure of breaking down overall unified sequences into its component elements
Motivating Operations
Anything that establishes conditions that improve the effectiveness of a reinforcer
- Anything that makes a consequence more reinforcing necessarily changes the outcome of a reinforcement procedure
- - with primary reinforcers that satisfy a physiological need, the greater the deprivation, the more effective its satisfying reinforcer will be
Positive Punishment
A punishment procedure in which a behavior is followed by the presentation of, or an increase in the intensity of, a stimulus.
- Also called “type 1 punishment”
Negative Punishment
A punishment procedure in which a behavior is followed by the removal of, or a decrease in the intensity of, a stimulus.
- Also called “type 2 punishment” or “penalty training”
Extinction burst
A sudden increase in the rate of behavior during the early stages of extinction
Variable Ration Schedule (VR)
A reinforcement schedule in which, on average, every nth performance of a behavior is reinforced
Ration Strain
Disruption of the pattern of responding due to stretching the ratio of reinforcement too abruptly or too far
Fixed Ration Schedule
A reinforcement schedule in which every nth performance of a behavior is reinforced
Fixed Interval Schedule
A reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is reinforced the first time it occurs following a specified interval since the last reinforcement.
Variable Ratio Schedule
A reinforcement schedule in which, on average every nth performance of a behavior is reinforced.
Variable Interval Schedule
A reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is reinforced the first time it occurs following an interval since the last reinforcement, with the interval varying around a specified average.
Satiation
A reduction in the effectiveness of a reinforcer due to exposure to or consumption of the reinforcer.
- food can be reinforcing when a person is hungry, but it loses some of its effectiveness with each bite
Redundancy
- Excessive repetition in expression.
- Having additional, unnecessary structures.
- Containing duplicate systems or equipment as backup to prevent failure.
Differential Reinforcement
Any operant training procedure in which certain kinds of behavior are systematically reinforced and others are not
Differential Reinforcement of High Rate (DHR)
A form of differential reinforcement in which a behavior is reinforced only if it occurs at least a specified number of times in a given period
Differential Reinforcement of Low Rate (DLR)
A form of differential reinforcement in which a behavior is reinforced only if it occurs no more than a specified number of times in a given period.
Differential Reinforcement of Zero Responding (DR0)
A form of differential reinforcement in which reinforcement is contingent on the complete absence of a behavior for a period of time.
- Also called differential reinforcement of other behavior because some other behavior is necessarily reinforced.
Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior (DRI)
A form of differential reinforcement in which a behavior that is incompatible with an unwanted behavior is systematically reinforced.
Discrimination Hypothesis
The proposal that the PRE occurs because it is harder to discriminate between intermittent reinforcement and extinction than between continuous reinforcement and extinction
PRE
Partial Reinforcement Effect
- The tendency of a behavior to be more resistant to extinction following partial reinforcement than following continuous reinforcement
Response Unit Hypothesis
The proposal that the PRE is due to differences in the definition of a behavior during intermittent and continuous reinforcement
Frustration Hypothesis
The proposal that the PRE occurs because non-reinforcement is frustrating and during intermittent reinforcement frustration becomes an S+ for responding
Sequential hypothesis
The proposal that the PRE occurs because the sequence of reinforced and non-reinforced behaviors during intermittent reinforcement becomes an S+ for responding during extinction
Matching Law
The principle that, given the opportunity to respond on two or more reinforcement schedules, the rate of responding on each schedule will match the reinforcement available on each schedule.
Hal Markowitz
- improving quality of life of zoo animals using operant principles
- making them work to obtain food to resemble wild life
