Final Flashcards
In Western societies achievers:
Do well in activities Are independent Are competitive Are self-reliant Are responsible Work hard to obtain objectives
Joy in Mastery
< 2 years Show mastery motivation Do not seek recognition Shift goals when confronted with failure Performance standard and success/failure are not yet salient
Approval Seeking
~ 2 years
Seek recognition, expect disapproval with failure
Avoid criticism and failures
Learn to expect approval from successes and disapproval from failures
Use of Standards
~ 3 years
React independently of successes and failures
Objective standards for appraising their performance
Show pride and shame to achievements
Mastery Motivation
An inborn motive to explore, understand and control one’s environment
Achievement Motivation
A willingness to strive to succeed at challenging tasks and to meet high standards of accomplishment
Theory of achievement motivation: Trait Perspective
Motivation is determined by personality traits
Need for achievement- learned motive to compete and to strive for success whenever one’s behavior can be evaluated against a standard of excellence, high need achievers take pride in their abilities and their self-fulfillment motivates their performance
Theory of achievement motivation: Behavioral Perspective
Achievement related strivings- attainment of approval, avoidance of disapproval
These strivings vary depending on the extent to which they value doing well and expectations of success
Which one is right?
Both!
Characteristics of the child, task, and environment impact motivation
Intrinsically motivated children prefer challenging problems
Extrinsically motivated children prefer simpler problems
Mastery goals
Increase knowledge
Acquire new skills
Improve ability
Performance goals
Gain positive judgements
Avoid negative criticisms
Viewed as competent
Approach goals
Challenges are opportunities
Associated with positive affect and focus
Positively impact achievement
Avoidance goals
Avoid failure/plan
Associated with negative affect and distraction
Negatively impact achievement
Attribution
The processes by which we try to explain the causes of behaviors and events
Three dimensions of causality
Weiner’s attribution theory
Locus of causality (internal, external)
Stability (stable, unstable)
Controllability (controllable, uncontrollable)
Ability: locus, stability and controllability?
Internal, stable, uncontrollable
Effort: locus, stability and controllability?
Internal, unstable, controllable
Task difficulty: locus, stability and controllability?
External, stable, uncontrollable
Luck: locus, stability and controllability?
External, unstable, uncontrollable
Example of an attribution process
Fail math test –> internal, stable, uncontrollable –> “I’m just not smart at math” –> shame, hopelessness
Attribution, achievement motivation, and achievement
Age trends
Motivation and preference for tasks- students prefer to perform tasks that parallel their attributions for their own success
Affective responses to success/failure
Persistence after failure
Cultural considerations
Attributional styles
Social norms
Social perception
Academic environment
Fixed mindset
Intelligence is fixed, effort does not impact outcomes
More oriented toward performance goals
Believe effort is necessary only for those who lacked ability
Believe effort will not impact achievement
Employ negative strategies following failure (e.g., withdrawal, cheating)
Growth mindset
Intelligence is malleable and is due to effort More oriented toward mastery goals Stronger belief in the power of effort Effort promotes ability Employ positive strategies after failure
Social-emotional skills
Emotion regulation Self-control/impulse control Relationship skills- communication, listening, cooperation, conflict management Empathy Perspective-taking Positive self-concept Perseverance Responsible decision making
Social-emotional learning interventions result in:
Higher academic achievement Positive social behavior Fewer conduct problems Less emotional distress Heightened resiliency General improvements in classroom behavior
Social-emotional learning in schools
A few states have recently added or are in the process of adding social-emotional learning to their state standards (Illinois, Pennsylvania, Kansas)
Adopted social-emotional interventions district-wide (Austin, TX)
Federal legislation in the House of Representatives
How do we foster social-emotional learning in schools?
Form school-family partnerships
Practice
Positive student-teacher interactions and relationships
Train teachers to be more emotionally supportive
Train teachers to use positive discipline practices
Sex
Typically refers to differences in biological characteristics
Gender
Typically refers to social responses to differences
Pros and cons of gender neutral parenting
Pros: self expression, better understanding of other gender
Cons: possible bullying
Development of gender-typed behavior
By age 2: show gender-related toy preferences
By age 3: sort toys by gender, sort occupations by gender, rather rigid gender stereotypes
By age 9-10: show more flexibility (role of cognition and experiences)
Hot potato effect
Boys have no use for dolls
Changes in gender-sterotype flexibility, more flexibility:
With age (except possibly during adolescence)
If parents engage in nontraditional roles
If encouraged to think more flexibly about gender
To what degree do differences exist between males and females?
More similarities than differences
Magnitude of differences is quite small
A lot of overlap (i.e. many individual differences)
Gender differences in social behaviors
Agression- boys have more overt/physical aggression, girls more relational aggression
Boys have higher activity level
Girls have higher compliance
Girls more fearful, timid, cautious
Girls more emotionally expressive and responsive, including masking negative emotions
Girls more empathy, though no clear difference in helping behavior
Examining gender differences in empathy
Zahn-Waxler, Radke-Yarrow et al., 1992
1-year-olds (17 boys, 10 girls); mothers observations, plus home and lab observations of responses to others emotions from age 1 to 2
Results: prosocial responses increase with age, girls showed more concern than boys, no difference between boys and girls on helping behaviors
Cross-cultural evidence of gender differences in development
Similarity in gender differences across diverse cultures –> could be reflection of similarity in gender socialization
Hormonal evidence of gender differences in development
Girls exposed to androgens prenatally (CAH), later engage in traditionally male activities
Paterski et al., 2005: Do children with CAH display more preference for male-preferred toys? How do parents socialize toy preferences in CAH girls?
Participants: 3-10 years old (65 children with CAH, 32 unaffected siblings)
Method: videotaped in lab setting, playing alone, with mother, and with father; room contained various toys including female-preferred, male-preferred, and neutral toys; measured amount of time spent with each toy; coded parental responses (positive, negative, or neutral)
Results: girls with CAH displayed more male-typical preferences than their unaffected sisters, no difference for boys
Both mothers and fathers had more positive responses to sex-typical toy play, esp. true for CAH girls playing with girls toys
Bruce –> Brenda –> David Reimer story
Born a boy, but tragic accident during circumcision led to surgically altering sexual organs to be a girl (plus hormones)
Treated as a girl- initial reports of great success
By late childhood/early adolescence: “Brenda” very unhappy, depressed, never identified as a girl, found out history, got reconstructive surgery to return to original sex
Evidence that you cannot arbitrarily assign to be male or female
Differences in brain structure and lateralization (MRI studies)
Differences in hypothalamus and amygdala- related to emotion and emotion regulation
Differences in corpus callosum- girls brains have larger corpus callosums, suggesting greater connectivity between brains
Major caution in interpreting findings like these: Experiences/plasticity- are differences in brain structure the cause of behavior differences?
Gender identity
Age 2-3
Labeling as boy/girl
Gender stability
Age 4-5
If girl, grow up to be woman
If boy, grow up to be man
Gender constancy
Age 6-7
Gender is unchanging, regardless of change in outward appearance
Seek out same-sex models
“Sexist self-socializers”
Socializing self specifically in same-sex behavior
Understanding gender constancy
Occurs earlier than originally thought
3-5 year olds: if make gender changes (in hairstyle or dress) to drawing of a boy or girl, no gender constancy
If make gender changes via photographs- then show gender constancy
Children develop gender schemas based on:
Their own perceptions
Information from parents, peers, etc.
Cultural stereotypes
Children use gender schemas to:
Evaluate and explain behavior
Example of gender schemas: Martin et al., 1995
91 preschool children ages 4-6
Shown 3 attractive and 3 unattractive toys
Some labeled “things girls really like” or “things boys really like,” some not labeled
Suggests that children are very impressionable
Gender in the Media
Influence of who is on TV (more males portrayed than females)
Influence of how they are portrayed (even when presented non-stereotypically)
Influence of stereotyped ads
Pike & Jennings (2005)
62 first and second graders, 3 conditions:
-traditional toy commercial: all boys playing with Harry Potter legos
-nontraditional toy commercial: all girls playing with Harry Potter Legos
-nontoy commercial (Chuckie cheese or lucky charms)
Then, asked to sort toys (including HP legos) into piles for only boys, only girls, or both boys and girls
Results:
NONE sorted HP legos into girls only
Girls more likely to say HP legos are for both, boys more likely to say boys only
Boys who watched traditional ad were MUCH less likely to be gender neutral about toy
Gender differences in sum
Gender role concepts develop early and change in flexibility over the course of childhood
Males and females differ on some aspects of social behavior, but differences are small in magnitude
Multiple biological, cognitive, and social factors contribute to the explanation of these variations
Observational learning
Especially attending to same-sex models
Differential reinforcement
Encouraging sex-typed behavior
Actively reinforcing sex-typed behavior
Punishing non-sex-typed behavior
Parents are more likely to:
Encourage girls to express feelings
Grant boys autonomy –> example more freedom to roam neighborhood or make decisions
Fathers react more negatively to boys playing with girls’ toys
Do parents provide different socialization to girls and boys? (Fagot & Hagan, 1991)
Participants: 12 mo, 18 mo, and 5 yr olds
Home observations
Coded for context or activity, and reaction of parents (positive, negative, or instructional)
Results:
12 month olds: boys received more positive responses from parents for male typical and aggressive behaviors than girls
18 month olds: parents gave more positive reactions to boys than girls for playing with male-typical toys
5 year olds: no differences
Evidence that gender socialization occurs early- by age 5, parents not as involved
Peers in gender development
Children self-segregate by gender from early age
Group norms evolve within same-sex groups
Peers react negatively to gender-inconsistent behavior
Do same-sex peers shape gender-typed behavior? (Martin & Fabes, 2001)
Observational study of preschoolers over a 6-month period
Observed activity level and gender-typed toy preferences
Results: more time spent playing with same-sex peers:
Greater increases in activity level and sex-typed choices of toys for boys
Greater decreases in activity level, and increased sex-typed choices of toys for girls
Prosocial development
Refers to socially recognized positive actions and inhibiting socially disapproved (negative) actions
Kindness, sharing, helping, cooperation
Self-control
Self-control
Ability to regulate one’s own conduct & to inhibit actions that are unacceptable or conflict with a goal