Final Flashcards
What is the History of Evolutionary thought?
1) Natural Theology - all creation from God, discover nature = discover God ; 2) Hierarchical Organization of species - non-being to God and minerals ; 3) Fixity of Species - species did not change over time = no extinction
What ideas go against Darwin’s thoughts?
No extinction, no hierarchy, no single species
Charles Lyell
Uniformitarianism - Earth’s present landscape was produced by past actions of the same gradual geological processes that we observe today. “Principles of Geology” Book had big impact on Darwin (he took it on the beagle)
Geology and long periods of time
Lamarke
1) Principles of similarity - Environment led to variation (giraffes) 2) Use and disuse principle (cut rats tail off) 3) Inheritance of acquired characteristics - • Gain of train through environmental interaction – this was important for Darwin to work with
helped establish the idea of common ancestor and organism transmutation
George LeClarc
Wrote History Naturelle - helped establish variation. He thought variation was a result of degeneration from the ideal and that the common ancestor was the ideal form. Helped establish that species change.
Charles Darwin
5 yr mission on Beagle, lots of fossils, species doing same things in different locations , variations of organisms between islands
4 Postulates
1)• Individuals of a population will vary 2) • The variance is heritable 3) • In each generation some individuals survive and reproduce successfully and others do not 4) • The fate of individuals is not determined entirely on chance. Instead, individuals with advantageous traits survive the longest and reproduce the most offspring.
Artificial Selection
human interference with evolution- breeding dogs
Homologous structures
from same anscestors but used in different ways (bats, dogs, fishes)
Comparative Anatomy
comparing forelimbs on birds humans
Embryological similarity
We start life all looking similar (Serres and Meckel)
Marcupials vs. Placentals
Marcupial - kangaroo pouch - baby grows outside. Placental - baby gets nourishment from the inside - (humans)
Fossils
shows how species evolved
Population
all individuals of same species living in a given geographical area
Gene
discreet segment of DNA that codes for a particular trait
Gene Pool
all genes in population
Allele Frequency
relative proportion of each allele in the population
Evolution
change of allele frequencies within a population over time/generations
Hardy-Weinberg principle
1) No mutation 2) No gene flow 3) No natural selection 4) Random Mating 5) Very large population
Describe in detail principles in HW - give examples
Mutation - rare ; gene flow - rampant in humans ; population - genetic drift ; Random mating - nope - behavioral stuff ; All genotypes equally successful - any trait with advantage will increase. (Elk- big rack)
Natural Selection = success =
survival and reproduction (Natural selection acts on phenotypes only)
Competition
struggle for scarce resources (among same species)
Predator Prey interaction
put pressures on each other - coevolution
Sexual selection
Peacocks - preferences of females
3 effects of Natural Selection
Directional ; Stabilizing (baby too skinny, fat ; Disruptive (bi-model - in the middle doesn’t work)
Biological Species Concept)
groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups
Pre-mating mechanisms (give examples)
1) Geography 2) Ecology 3) Temporal 4) Behavior 5) Mechanical
Post mating mechanisms
Gametic incompatibility ; Hybrid inviability ; Hybrid infertility
Speciation depends on 2 things
Population isolation and Genetic Divergence (development of large genetic differences)
Population effects
Founders effect and bottleneck
Ways to Speciate
Allopatric Speciation and Sympatric, and mutations
Allopatric
geographically separated
Sympatric
ecological niche (fruit flies on different fruit)
Mutations
rare, but can lead to instant speciation
Adaptive Radiation
One ancestor diverges into many different ones becuase of many speciations evenst in a short time (new habitat, mutations…finches)
Becoming Extinct
Localized Distribution - sand lizard only lives in sand dunes…if that is gone…so is the lizard
Systematics
discovering of evolutionary relationships
Taxonomy
naming things
Phylogeny
classification based on evolutionary history
Clade
Family tree portion
Hierarchy
Domain, Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
How do we decide how to organize
Homologous structures, vestigial structures, convergent evolution with Analogous structures
Analogous Structures
: structures with similar function, bit dissimilar anatomy
Convergent Evol
anatomical similarities not derived from common ancestry
Homo sapiens
bipedal, meant for endurance
Progression of humans
better tools, chin protruding, smaller incisors, smaller skull, upper pallet (more space in mouth), growing crops, now us!
Categories of data that would Falsify Darwin
1) Fossil Record 2) Genetic Analysis 3) Relative dating 4) Absolute dating 5) Cultural Artifacts
Neanderthals
230,000-30,000 yrs ago, buried dead, brain larger, hunted with weapons, cowboy lives
Chimp / Human
DNA code very similar, fossil calibration, human-chimp divergence
Synapomorphies
similar traits with chimp (no tail, erect posture, flexibility of wrists and ankle, molecular data)
Leaves
benefit = broad surface area full of chloroplasts (Like solar panels)
Cost of leaves
large surface area for evaporation; solution = waxy, H2O-proof cuticle
Stoma
leaf pores for capturing CO2; can open/close to control evaporation
Mesophyll
(Middle leaf) contain most of the cholorplasts o Fed by vascular bundles (pipes) that shuttle water and minerals to and sugars away. (Circulatory System)
Photosynthesis (reactants and products)
o 6 CO2 +6 H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Light RXN
• Light (photon) hits a pigment molecule
o Captured for photosynthesis
o Reflected back
What colors are absorbed and reflected?
o Every color besides green is being absorbed
Pigments
• Chlorophyll a: most common – it makes the plant green!
Carotenoids
not as fragile to light hours and temperatures (that way leaves change colors because Chloro a goes away with the lower temp
More Light RXN
- Electron releases energy to form ATP and others
- All this happens in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplast.
- Light (photon)_transferred by chlorophyll to electron
Calvin Cycle
Dark RXN” because it doesn’t require light, but it can’t work without the Light RXN products (• ATP from light RXN fuels synthesis of sugar (sugar production)
Linnaeus
made Classification system, Two part system Genus species. Also put them Heirarchy, each species was immutable creation of God
Key observations while on the beagle
Variation of organisms between islands (separate creations); Lots of fossils ; Species doing same things in different locations ; Saw different forms of the same animal (finches) ; CLams in line of sediment
How would you disprove evolution?
Found Homo sapien skull dated 6 million years ago. Or find cultural evidence of tools made much longer before neanderthals?
Fixity of species
1) Natural Theology - creation by God 2) Hierarchal Organization of Species - Aristotles view (non-being to perfect being “God”) 3) Fixity of Species - No extinction, species not change over time, discreet boundaries between species, empirical evidence and philosophical ideas
Genetic analysis and DNA
Helps us to know about evolution and evidence of it.
Behavior
any observable activity of a living animal
Innate Behavior
behavior is completed correctly the first time without instruction.
Learned Behavior
behavior requires experience to complete ; or the capacity to make changes in behavior on the basis of experience
Habituation
getting “used” to a stimulus ; decline in response to a given stimulus (helps with conserving energy)
Conditioning (trial and error) learning
animals acquire new and appropriate responses to stimuli through experience. (rewards and punishments)
Insight learning
problem solving without experience ; chimps and boxes
Imprinting
learning only at a specified development ; special form of learning where an animal’s nervous system is rigidly programmed to learn a certain thing only at a certain period of development. (ducks)
communication
the production of a signal by one organism that causes another organism to change its behavior in a way beneficial to both.
Visual Communication
silent, fast, quickly changed, ATP expensive, conspicuous, rely on sight
Audio communication
fast, long distance, don’t have to see it, variety of messages, conspicuous, rely on hearing
Pheromones
chemical signals between the same species; chemical substances that are produced by individuals and that influence the behavior of other members of same species. (Long distance, hard to modify, cheap to make)
Aggression
antagonistic behavior between same species.
Finding Mates
Through Acoustics (noises), visual displays (dances,colorful) , chemicals (pheromones)
Dominance Heirarchy
each animal establishes a rank that determines its access to resources
Territoriality
the defense of an area where important resources are located
DNA
contained in Chromosomes, holds genes and hereditary material.
Adaptations
structures or behaviors that aid in survival and reproduction
Genes
units of heredity that provide info required to control life
organelles
structures in cells that are specialized to carry out specific functions (like obtaining energy)
homeostasis
organisms must “stay the same” or keep conditions in their body fairly constant
Prokaryotic Cell
Cell Wall, Outer Capsule, Flagella, Pili (for transfering gametes), Unbound Nucleiod, Plasmid (free floating DNA rings), Ribosomes, Mesosomes (for ATP)
Eukaryote
Cytoskeleton, Nucleus, Ribosomes, Golgi Apporatus, Vesicles, Lysosomes, Endoplasmic reticulum, Mitochondria
Autotrophic
Self-feeding
Heterotrophic
“other feeding”
Molecule
2 or more atoms held together with chemical bonds
compound
2 different atoms held together with chemical bonds (Different is the key between molecules and compounds)
Ionic Bond
electrical attraction, weak
Covalent Bond
Electrons shared, strong
Hydrogen bond
bonded through polarized hydrogen atoms, weak
Water
surface tension, adhesion (sticky), solvent, hard to heat up, hard to vaporize
Hydrophilic vs Hydro phobic
love water vs. fear water
Acid vs Base
0-6.9 (acid) vs. 7.1 - 14 (base)
Carbohydrate
carbon plus water, = sugars
Sugars
monsaccharide, polysaccharide, disaccharide, GLUCOSE! (C6H12O6)
Lipids
fatty acid, fats, oils, (glycerol, triglycerides)
Saturated fats
carbon atoms that contain as much hydrogen atoms as they can chain to. Making it really fatty!
Steriod
cholesterol. Structurally different. Have four rings of carbon, fused together with other functional groups protruding from them (Estrogen and Testosterone)
Proteins
molecules composed of one or more chains of amino acids, (and ENZYMES)
Principles and Inquiry
• Natural Causality- we have to assume that things are caused by natural things; • Natural Laws- assume that these causes are from natural laws; • See things similarly- assume that all scientists see the data in the same way
Scientific Method
Observation, Question, Hypothesis, Experiment, Conlcusion
Being ALIVE
Homeostasis, growth, getting energy from environment, reproduction, capacity to evolve
Phospholipid bilayer
Hyrdophilic heads, phobic tails
Dehydration synthesis and Hyrdolosis
breaking down of covalent bonds through means of adding water, or removing it
Fats
more energy storage than sugars, weogh less. Solid at room temp
Oils
liquid at room temp.
Unsaturated:
double bonds..kinks…oils mostly. Kinks in chaings, keep molecules apart, hence liquid at room temp
Denaturation
chemically or thermally breaking protein bonds
Primary Structure of protiens
refers to the sequence of amino acids that make up the protein
Secondary structures
folding, bending, pleating (helix)
Tertiary Sructures
hydrogen and disulfide bonds that make 3D structure
Quaternary
different 3D structures put together.
Nucleic Acids
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous (DNA and RNA)
Nucleotide
ATP, act as energy carriers
RNA
G to C; A to U
DNA
G to C; A to T
Cell Theory
Cell is the fundamental unit of an organism; Organisms can be single celled or made of a lot; All cells come from preexisting cells
plant cells
Chloroplasts, Plastids (contain seasonal pigments) , Centroul Vacoule (turger pressure)
Membranes
Semi-Permeable membranes- Some shall pass ;
Proteins embedded in membrane
Fluid Mosaic
Functions of Membrane
Separate in from out, Gatekeeper, provides shape, Cell to cell communication, Senses changes in environment, protection, movement?
Receptor Protein
: some molecule fits into protein, then causes a response inside the cell.
Recognition Protien
cellular I.D. tags, self from not self (blood, transplants
Enzymes
proteins that help chemical reactions (amylase) anything that ends in “lase” is usually an enzyme
Attachment Proteins
: holds cytoskeleton to membrane and attach cells together
Transport Proteins
regulate movement of molecules across the membrane (Channel- no ATP, Carrier - lock and key = ATP used)
Diffusion
Movement from area of high concentration to area of low concentration; It will continue until equally dispersed.
Diffusion Continued…
Heat speeds it up, also greater concentration ; Can be simple, or facilitate (through channels and carrier proteins)
Osmosis
Diffusion of H2O down a gradient ( an area of high concentrated water to low)
Active Transport
moement of individual small molecules or ions against their concentration gradients throuhg membrane spanning protiens
Endocytosis
Movement of particales or large molecules into a cell; plasma membrane engulfs the substance in a sac that pinches off.
Exocytosis
Movement of particles our of a cell; enclosed material appraoches membrane and fuses with it thus letting it all out.
Properties of Energy
1st law of thermodynamics - Energy never created nor destroyed ; 2nd law - Disoder (entropy) always increases (entropy is less useful energy)
Chemical Reaction
Builds or breaks bonds
exergonic vs endergonic
Energy out vs energy in
Glucose + Oxygen =
ATP (energy), CO2, and water
Coupled Reaction
Exergonic provides energy for endergonic
Catalyst = Enzymes
Speed up reaction; inlude subrates and active sites, Lower activation energy needed, lock and key - key changes causes reactions
Enzyme Regulation
Competitive, Non-competitive, and Feedback inhibition
Competitive
molecule blocks the active site- won’t work (TB bacterium and vaccine (inhibits the inhibitor), toxin of Parkinson’s
Non-competitive
some other molecule binds to enzyme and distorts it
Feedback inhibition
: end product of multi-enzyme RXN inhibits start of RXN
Behavior
observable activity of a living animal
Innate Behavior
behavior is completed correctly the first time without instruction
Learned Behavior
behavior requires experience to complete
Habituation
decline in response to a repeated stimulus (getting “use” to a stimulus)
Conditioning
learning from Trial and Error, also from rewards and punishment (pavlov’s dogs)
Insight
Problem solving without experience
Imprinting
learning only at a specified development (ducks, moose mom)
Nature vs. Nurture (innate vs. Learned)
no real distinction, behaviors are not static, they can change
Types of communication
Visual, Audio, Chemical (pheromones), and touch; What are the differences? Advantages and disadvantages
Competition
Not enough resource to keep up with reproductive potential
Intra and Inter
Intra -within same species Inter - other species. (try to display so they don’t have to fight - visual/audio “size-up”)
Dominance Heirarchies (Ranking)
Wolves - leader has more resources (more mates, food, space)
Territories
individuals defend a resource area, Energy to maintain. (Sight, sound, smell) Examples?
Finding a mate
Identifying - same species, opposite sex, receptiveness
Groups (Benefits vs. Costs)
Benefits -Anti-predator, Hunting/gathering, Division of labor, Easier to find mates ; Costs- Competition, disease, infanticide (mufasa), Conspicuous
Altruism
sacrifice individual success fro the good of the group
Kin Selection
: sacrifice individual success fro the good of the relatives
Why are plants important?
Photosynthesis creates Glucose, maintains atmosphere, provides carbon matter to soil, (Shelter, fuel, medicine)
Algae
not in the plant kingdom, but in the protest “group” (Likely resulted in symbiotic relationship between bacteria with mitochondria and blue-green algae with chloroplasts)
Alternation of Generations
switching between haploid (n) structure and diploid (2n) structure in one life cycle
Alternation of Generations process
- Sperm (n) and egg (n) meet = fertilization into sporophyte generation
- Meiosis occurs = haploid (n) spore
- Spore (n) develops into gametophyte generation (male and female)
- Mitosis occurs = sperm (n) and egg (n) released.
Problem: Each cell needs to be in water
Solution:– small= osmosis, big = pipes
Prob:• Desiccation while allowing gas exchange
o Solution – waxy coating, stomata, reduced surface area
Prob-• Moving photosynthate around
o Solution – Vasculatization - PIPE
Prob - • Support against gravity
o Solution – “skeleton” lignon
Prob • Withstand temp. fluctuations
o Solution – Chlorophyll a , having other chlorophylls that are stronger (b,c,)
Prob• Getting sperm to egg
o Solution – Swimming sperm, pollinators. (these can be so tightly related that they can co-evolve together
Non-vascular plants
No pipes = small plant, need moist habitat to get egg and sperm together, *Gametophyte is dominant
Sporophyte
body consists of diploid cells (splits into 4 haploid cells through Meiosis)
Gametophyte
Haploid spores devlop into multicellular, haploid bodies called gametophytes (ultimately produces male and female haploid gametes by mitosis)
Vascular plants
Sporophyte is dominant, are capable of growing on land thanks to support from lignon and pipes for nutriets (roots, leaves)
Xylem
move water and minerals upwards against gravity; found in interior of stem.
Phloem
move sugars and other nutrients from leaves to rest o plant; found towards outside of stem
Seedy Plants
further complexity to the plant species, Wind born gametes, Animal carriers (bees), • Seeds contain embryonic sporophyte (2n), food supply (fruit), and protective coat (skin or husk)
Pollen
grains are tiny male gametophytes that carry sperm-producing cells
Female gametes in seedy plants
inside sporophyte - fruit (fruit we eat is ovarian tissue)
Conifers
“Evergreen” = decreased leaf loss year-round instead of massive loss during fall.
Reduced leaves = reduced evaporation (reduced solar panel)
Flowers
attract/use pollinators as pollen (sperm) transporters; Cost -expensive to build and maintain, attract cheaters and predators (deer like tulips)
Law of segregation
the principle that each gamete receives only one of each parent’s pair of alleles of each gene.
intron
a segment of DNA in a eukaryotic gene that does not code for amino acids in a protein. (These introns are actually tossed out and exons are meshed together to form RNA copy)
inductive reasoning
creating a generalization based on many specific observations that support the generalization
deductive reasoning
process of generating hypotheses about the results of a specific experiment or the nature of a specific observation.
4 things about natural selection/ evolution
1) NS does not cause genetic changes in individuals (antibiotics only favors the survival of bacteria that can resist it) 2) NS acts on individuals, but populations are change by evolution 3) evolution is the change in allele frequencies 4) Evolution is not progressive, it does not make organisms better.
transcription
the synthesis of an RNA molecule from a DNA template.
