Final Flashcards
Consistency Theories
a set of theories that are based on the assumption that humans have a basic need to be psychologically consistent; Includes Balance Theory, Congruity Theory, and Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Balance Theory
Fritz Heider; P-O-X theory, a person (p), another person (o), and an object (x). Each item is in a triangle together with a positive or negative element to each other; is used to describe interpersonal relationships- if someone you like something, then you now like that thing too. Ex used in product advertising with a famous athlete
Congruity Theory
shows how people evaluate other people or things on a continuum rather then simply positive or negative (Scale); 2 assumptions are that attitudes tend toward maximum simplicity and that two attitude objects are linked by an assertion and differ in evaluation, pressure exists to shift toward a point of equilibrium
Maximum simplicity
suggests that our attitudes tend to fall toward the ends of the continuum rather than in the middle; It is easier for us to hold stongly held attitudes than it is to hold neutral attitudes in the middle of the continuum
Congruity Theory Strengths
- provides a better explanation of consistency by allowing the attitudes to move along a continuum without having to completely change from positive to negative.
- Both Attitudes can move as opposed to other theories when only one of the attitudes can change; This offers a stronger explanatory power for the theory
Congruity Theory Limitations
- Does not explain situations that are more complex than the interaction of only two elements related to the target receiver
- Predictive power is limited
Congitive DIssonance Theory
Have cognitions in our brains that are little bits of knowledge that can 3 different relationships with one another; is an aversive motivational state that people attempt to eliminate these uncomfortable congnitions
CDT 3 different relationships cognitions have with one another
- Dissonant relationship-Two cognitions that are inconsistent with one another (Buying a laptop is not related to a new power cord for the home computer)
- Consonant Relationship-Involves two cognitions that are consistent with one another; Buying a power cord is consistent with the belief of we need a power cord
- Irrelevant Relationship-two cognitions that a person perceives as unrelated (ex: I eat cheese is not related to I bought a laptop and two ipads
Magnitude of Dissonance
the amount of dissonance; it varies and affects the pressure for change; effected by 1. the importance of the cognitions, the ratio of dissonant to cognitions and the degree of cognitive overlap
Cognitive Overlap (CDT)
The similarity fo the choices available; the greater the similarity the greater the overlap
Dissonance Reduction
Comes after the magnitude of dissonance; The process a person engages in to reduce cognitive dissonance; carried out in ways change of behavior, change the ratio, change the importance, denial, bolstering, transcendence and differentiation
Change of Importance (Dissonance Reduction)
Change of the importance of cognitions; ex deciding elements weren’t that important after all
Change of Behavior (Dissonance Reduction)
Change of Behavior; ex stopping smoking in order to deal with dissonance of a anti smoking commerical
Change the Ratio
More reaons or cognitions that are consistent with her behavior to reduce the dissonance; ex individual could decide that smoking also enhances concentration, creating a more consonant situation for the receiver
Denial
Choosing to disbelieve the information
Bolstering
Adding consonant elements to reduce the ratio of dissonant to consonant elements; ex smoker referring to others who use weight control as a positive health benefit, emphasize the pleasure of smoking and focus on smokers rights issues
Transcendence
values that are more important than the issues causing the dissonance ; ex anti abortion people killing a abortion doctor, which is basically killing a human being to stand up for those who kill human beings; only makes sense under transcendence, when they say that killing the doctor will protect hundreds of unborn children in the future
Differentiation
splitting the attitude object into acceptable and unacceptable parts; ex smioker differentiate between filtered cigarettes and unfiltered cigarettes, filtered is thought of as safer so there is not as much dissonance
Cognitive Dissonance Contexts (4)
The situations that dissonance is most likely to occur; are four induced compliance, hypocrisy, decision making and effort justification
INduced compliance
when dissonance results from being induced to perfom a counter-attitudinal behavior (behaving in a manner that goes against their attitudes)
Ex: Going to girlfriends dance recital, were forced to but tell friends that youi actually enjoyed it when you actually didnt dissonace
Hypocrisy
Say one thing but do another; a persons behavior is not consistent with the attitude they hold; Want to change their behavior instead of attitude; ex kids believe that using condoms reduces changes of getting HIV and sTDs but still do not use condoms during sex
Decision Making
Causes dissonance; Has four stages;
- Conflict-alternatives are being evaluated and info is being gathered
- Decision- The decision is made
- Cognitive Dissonance-feel dissonance about whether we made the right choice
- Dissonance Reduction- seek supporting info to help us feel better about our decision and precieve our choice to be better than we initially did
Effort Justification
When we expend great effort or enure great discomfort to obtain some desirable outcome dissonance is aroused; attempt to justify the horrible dissonance that you experience; ex frats - tell yourself that the benefits are great and will last a lifetime
Necessary Conditions for Cognitive Dissonance
self explanatory; The conditions are
- Aversive Consequences
- Freedom of Choice
- Insufficient External Justification
Strengths of Cognitive Dissonance Theory
- It applies in many situations
- Has very broad explanatory powers
- Strong support from decades of research
Limitations of Cognitive Dissonance Theory
- IS difficult to disprove
2. Lesser predictive ability and control
Credibility (Source Factor)
is a perception of believability; if credible, you are believable;
2 types:
1. Initial Credibility-referes to the credibility of a source prior to the presenitation of the message
2. Derived Credibility-credibility after the presentation
Ethos-credibility of source
Pathos-emotional appeals
Logos-nature of the argument and structure of the message
Dimensions fo Credibility 3
Good Character (Type of person), Goodwill (Intent towards the audience), and INtelligence (knowledge of the speaker)
Sleeper effect
Suggests that high credibility sources have more persuasive impact immediately folling the message than do low cred sources, but over time the credibility wears off
Discounting Model
assumes that initial attitude change is a result of both source credibility and message content; source credibility eventually wears off
Introductions and credbility
introductions play a pivitoal role in the credibility. ; can share sources education and experience
Message varibales and credibility
study what variables of a message cause for the credibility to rise or decline; found that messages that is farther from a persons anchor, higher credible people were more cpersuasive than less credible people but when a message was close to a persons anchor, the more credible people were less persuasive then the less credible people. Factors that play a role-humor, delivery of the message, message incongruity(against persons wants and needs)
Reciever factors and credibility
Involvement with the topic, Locus of control(outlook on life that a person holds), Authroitartism (how much you accept what people in authority tell you), Stress (how much stress a person is under when receiving the message)
Locus of Control
outlook on life, external locus of control means you believe that your world is control by things like fate, and circumstances that are uncontrollable; internal locus of control believe that you are in control of your future.
Other source factors
Normative influence and similarity(are you more likely to be influenced by someone who is similar to you/ more persuaded in a group), Physical attractiveness, Likeablility(do you like the source or person)
Topic Saliency
how important the topic of persuasive message is to revieveers
Logical Appeals vs. Emotional Appeals
Logical Appeal-persuasive message that relies on logic and resoning to be persuasive
Emotional Appeal-relies on emotion to be persuasive
Humor
Is very effective at gaining an audiences attention; enhances liking of the source;but can also be offensive and is bery difficult to study
Guilt
when you believe that your behavior does not meet your own standards and you experience feelings of guilt; door in the face example (ask for much more than is reasonable, only to get shut down and ask for a amount that is much less and more reasonable
Fear
emotional appeal that relies on fear to persuade the audience; examples are the parallel response model, fear control response and the danger control response
Parallel response Model (Fear)
proposed that people have one of two responses to fear
- Fear control response(attempt to downplay the fear by focusing on reducing it)
- Danger Control response(focus on assessing the therat and how to eliminate it)
Extended Parallel Process Model
Piggy backs the parallel response model and builds on the concept tha tpeople have either a danger control response or a fear control response and shows the different outcome
Includes four components of effective fear
Four components of Effective Fear (Extended Parallel Process Model)
- Severity
- Susceptibility-how probable it is that the threat will affect the audience
- Response Efficacy-how effective the recommended response is in elminatiing the threat
- Self-Efficacy-extent the audience believes they are capable of performing the recommended response
Use of Evidence
evidence is the factual statements originating from a source other than the speaker; should you or should you not use evidence depends on the nature of the evidence and if it will help you
Language style
types of words you choose to present in your message; ex “I have a dream speech” MLK used very highly regarded words which made his speech that much more powerful
Language Intensity
language characteristics that indicate the extend that source deviates from neutrality; determined by two features
- Emotional intensity
- Linguistic specificity(words that are narrow in meaning and get to the point)
Resistance to persuasion
Constructing your argument to resist your opponents message; Inoculation and forewarning show this
Inoculation Theory
to make an audience resistant to oppostition they could be given a small does of the oppositions argument; giving them a few weak arguments of the opposition in order to allow them to develop counter arguments;
Forewarning
telling the audience they are about to be persuaded can make an audience resitant to persuasive messages; do it about your oppostition
