Final Flashcards
Short term memory
Working, activated, interactive workspace
30-60 seconds
5-9 items
Long term memory
unlimited duration and capacity
Semantic long term memory
factual knowledge
Procedural long term memory
knowledge of how to do something/ a process
Episodic long term memory
knowledge of an impactful situation (intense emotional connection)
Context (memory)
All characteristics and conditions related to the setting when a notion is learned- context helps with retrieval
Encoding
Transformation of information into a form that can be stored- into long term- electrochemical process (ion movement) and neuronal exchange
Retrieval
Accessing and recalling information that has been stored in long term
Rehearsal
While in STM, repeating information to make it accessible in LTM
Recognition tests
Tested in an environment with many cues and information available
Correct choices out of possible incorrect
Recall tests
Tested in an environment without cues
Deeper level of learning
Positive transfer of learning
Affects of prior skill benefits the learning of a new one
ex. soccer and track
Negative transfer of learning
affects of prior skill inhibits/deters learning of a new skill
ex. baseball and golf
Zero transfer
Prior skill does not affect new skill
Bilateral transfer
The ability to learn a skill on one limb and then for it to help learning on the other limb
contralateral transfer of knowledge limb to limb
ALWAYS POSITIVE
Proactive interference
Knowledge from a previously learned skill inhibits/interferes with learning a new skill
Retroactive interference
Knowledge from a skill interferes in the beginning, then new skill is learned. When transferring back, the original skill is deterred.
Encoding specificity principle
The context and cues used when a bit of information becomes encoded, if the same is there when needed, will enhance the recall of that memory
The more the test environment resembles the practice= better retention
Transfer appropriate processing
practicing the decision making in practice similar to how it will be in the moment of performance will help with making appropriate/best choices
Conceptual attention
The human capacity for focus on processing information, cognitive effort, and awareness
Operational attention
The effects of attention limits on performance
Attention limits- availability
Multiple tasks can be performed as long as information processing resources do not exceed limits
Cocktail phenomenon
Lots of things going on around you- unconciousely processing information on what is happening around you but focused on conversation with friend
Parallel Processing
Two or more streams of information can be processed without interference from another
Stroop effect
Have to process both word and color
Kahneman’s model
Attention is a cognitive effort and capacity if flexible
Attention is allocated
- 4 factors
4 factors of Kahneman’s model
- Arousal/anxiety/intensity
- Evaluation of demands
- Enduring dispositions
- Momentary intentions
(K1) Arousal/anxiety
Alertness, level of excitability of mental, emotional, & physiological states (inverted U)
Yerkes-Dodson Law
An inverted U relationship that exists between arousal and performance
Cue-utilization hypothesis (easterbrooks)
Low arousal= wide perceptual field
– Lots of cues available but unused
Excessive arousal= increasing perceptual narrowing
– miss task relevant cues
Catastrophe Theory
State of hypervigilance during highest levels of arousal (aka panic)
Decision making severely limited
Drop in performance
(K2) Evaluation of demands
Assessing attention capacity to perform multiple skills
Tasks differ in attention requirements
What should you pay attention to and what can be left
(3) Momentary Intensions
Cues or focal guidance (supervised/coached practice)
Told to focus on one specific thing
(4) Enduring dispositions
Involuntary visual, auditory, or tactile events that steal attention
novel and meaningful
Dual task Paradigm- continuous procedute
Primary= continuous motor skill
Secondary task= cognitive (performed simultaneously)
Dual task paradigm- probe procedure
Primary task= discrete motor skill
Secondary task= cognitive (presented at specific times)
Flow states
Research findings support a flow-performance relationship leading to enhanced performance
Perceptional slowing
Attention switching
Passive to active environment info processing
Internal to external movement outcomes
Action-effect hypothesis
Actions are best planned and controlled by their intended effects–> attentional focus should be on intended outcome
Selective attention
visual detection and selection of relevant environmental information to perform a task
active searching and passive processing
Quiet eye
part of selective attention- gaze fixation right before initiation of response
Extrinsic Augmented Feedback
Feedback from an external source
Used to enhance intrinsic feedback (verbal, electronic- video, EMG, buzzer)
Task Intrinsic Feedback
Sensory feedback inherent in the human system (proprioception, visual, auditory, tactile)
High intrinsic feedback setting
multiple sensory feedback sources- able to use visual, auditory, tactile, proprioceptive information
Low intrinsic feedback setting
few or none relevant sensory feedback sources- extrinsic feedback needed
Two types of extrinsic feedback
Knowledge of results (KR)= information about the outcome (degree of success)
and
Knowledge of performance (KP)= information about how well they completed the task
Feedback frequency- performance bandwidths
100% frequency of feedback can delay learning
bandwidths- threshold of error until step in
Self selected feedback can be helpful for skilled individuals
Guidance hypothesis
Too frequent verbal feedback deters learning
Learner becomes dependent on performing the skill correctly
Concurrent feedback low-intrinsic vs high-intrinsic feedback
Positive in low, negative in high
Guided questions
ask them how they did before telling
Descriptive vs prescriptive feedback
Descriptive= what went wrong
ie. The shot went to much to the left
Prescriptive= how to fix
ie. You should position your body in the middle and follow through with your arm
Erroneous feedback
bad feedback that overrides own sensory feedback
Qualitative feedback
degree of subjectiveness (more general and detailed feedback)
ex. better for beginners
Quantitative feedback
objective measures (numbers, exact measurements)
ex. better for skilled individuals
Effective feedback creates
momentary intentions
Modeling
use of demonstration as a means of conveying information about how to perform a motor skill
Observational learning
learning a skill by observing a person perform the skill
What do observers perceive
information about the skills coordination and registers invariant features
Observing skilled performers
quality coordination and strategies
Beginners observing beginners
more active problem solving
can include verbal feedback to focus attention and group learning strategies (check lists)
When is it best to use modeling
pre-performance, between trials
Cognitive mediation theory + modeling
Perceived movements–> mental representation–> encode to produce movements
Memory- guide for correcting errors
Dynamical systems + modeling
Visual system detects and processes information
Can apply coordination from visual info
Verbal instruction/cues
limit amount= focus on outcome/action goal and create momentary intentions
ex. speed and accuracy
- hard to focus on all
Cueing
Verbal- short and concise phrases that direct attention to critical features
Self- push-plant-pivot
Visual- focus attention on something visual (ie. keep eye on ball)
Good verbal phrasing
Focus on what they should do, not what they shouldn’t do
Variability of practice hypothesis
More variable practice facilitates motor response schema over constant practice
Facilitates refining the ability to set parameters (better at any new variation)
Two types of groups in variability research
Constant group (same- but do all yet it remains constant) and variable group (does diff things)
2 advantages of variability
- Systematically vary the environment
- Explore perceptual workspace
More variability employs an increase in motor response schema to allow us to set our parameters
Variability in open skills
vary the regulatory conditions- environment
Variability in closed skills
vary the nonregulatory conditions
Contextual environment
The interference that results from practicing several tasks concurrently, causes deeper cognition resulting in better overall learning. (RANDOM IS BETTER, MORE CHALLENGING)
Groups for Contextual interference
Random
Serial
Moderate
Blocked
Is contextual interference variable
NO- unless you add D, E, Z
Separate in research, combined in application
Lee and Magill
Action plan reconstruction- constantly problem solve and challenged (relates to schmitts)
open skills
Shea and Morgan
Elaboration/distinction- getting more info and understanding differences (relates to cognitive)
process and compare different things in short term memory–> automatic comparison (3 dogs- remember color, height, etc differences)
INTERTRIAL PROCESSING
Retroactive interference (CI)
mostly remember what was recently learned
varied practice leads to more possibility of retroactive interference- high CI makes it so the original skill is remembered through repetition of all
Shea and Morgan- barrier knockdown task
Random tested in blocked had the best retention
Blocked had a better acquisition
Goode and Magill Badminton study
Random had better retention and transfer test
Golf and CI
Control force parameter- enhance schema
Had variability with differences in yargage
Randomized which increases CI leading to deeper cognition
Challenge point theory
You want to be as challenges as possible to maximize learning
Variables of challenge point theory
complexity of task and type of setting
age and skill level (blocked is better for early)
Past experience with similar skills
Watch for frustration levels
Visual specificity
with vision or without
Encoding specificity
memory based recall- retrieval cues
Transfer appropriate processing
problem solving on the fly
Specificity vs variability
Practice specificity theorizes that the context of practice effects ability to retrieve the memory trace
Practice variability theorizes that the movement characteristics of the sill when varied will enhance learning (parameterization and motor response schema enhancement)
Mental practice
involves mentally seeing oneself perform a physical skill with no overt actions (have to go at same speed as real life)
increase EMG activity with mental practice
2 roles in motor learning (mental)
- As a practice technique for learning
- focus on the success, able to ignore the bad with mental imagery of success - Once skilled, can be used to maintain a high level
- action prep, seeing positive outcomes
- arousal control
Why does mental practice help
EMG activity occurs in muscle as we imagine which is why we should follow the same sequence and timing
Problem solving brain activity
Helps us through cognitive stage
More intense mental imagery…
more EMG activity
Two ways to help gain skill and mental control
- controlling for positive outcomes
- creating and practicing tough situations (learn to process through it)
Motivation to learn
Defined as the force that impels us to continue to strive, practice, and participate in activity
Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic is self, extrinsic is others
Research findings with external rewards
Expected external reward- decreases intrinsic motivation
Unexpected external reward- better at continuing
No external reward- continued and had higher intrinsic motivation
Task complexity (part-practice)
More complex- more components/parts and more attention
EX. dance routine, getting from wheelchair to bed
Less complex- less attention demands and components
EX. Archery, blocking a shot
NOT DIFFICULTY
Task organization (part-practice)
How interrelated the components of the skill are
High organization- parts performed in succession like a chain (hard to do separately)
EX. jump shot
Low organization- can do components separately from another
EX. dance routine
What is baseball in complexity and organization
Low complexity and high in organization
Part practice
Low in organization, high in complexity
ex. shifting gears
Whole practice
high in organization, low in complexity
ex. throwing a dart
Fractionization
Perform each limb’s task separately, than perform them together
When skills have assymmetric coordination of limbs
EX. musical instruments
Segmentation
Learning part of the skill then adding the next (stringing each part together)
Proceduralization
EX. dance routine, breaststroke
Simplification
Reducing the difficulty of the task - make it progressively more difficult
EX. learning to bat- hit off tee, soft toss, live pitch
Orthopedic surgical task example
3 groups- whole, blocked part, random part
Post test: Whole was best, random-part, than blocked.
issues: did not account for CI and part/whole practice
Overlearning
When practice continues beyond the amount needed to reach a certain skill level
Simply maintaining a skill level
Reaching ceiling/floor effect but need to maintain
Considerations planning pratice
length, frequency, and length of rest
How to enhance cognitive engagement
more frequent and short bouts of practice yields best overall learning
Postal workers study
1 hour, 1 session/day was better and took less hours to learn skill than 2 hour sessions 2x/day
Massed practice theories
Massed practiced can be bad because of
1. fatigue hypothesis
2. cognitive effort hypothesis
3. memory consolidation hypothesis
Cognitive effort hypothesis
The longer practice the more it becomes boring and cognition decreases
Fatigue hypothesis
Massed practice can increase fatigue which decreases learning ability
Consolidation hypothesis
Memory consolidation: the process of a memory encoding into long term memory
Occurs during deep sleep, lack of sleep makes it difficult to learn
Problems with massed vs distributed reseach
Limited to dynamic balance and procedural skills (lack of open skills)
Definitions inconsistent
Intertrial interval is confounding
For continuous skills
distributed practice is better
For closed skills
you want a mix of both
Massing can be beneficial when
fatigued state is a requirement for the task, injury prevention, potential of bad motor patterns developing, and potential of quitting
Practice should be
game like and engaging
deliberate and focus on critical aspects of the skill
problem solving and addressing weaknesses
How to create cognitive engagement
Variability, CI, and type of feedback
How to be a positive motivator
Focus attention on important aspects, positive feedback, team success
