Final Flashcards
What is “new racism”?
New racism is masked behind socially accepted ideologies and language, expressing negative views about racialized groups without explicitly referring to “race” or “colour” (e.g., colour-blind racism).
What is “explicit racism” or “old-style racism”?
Explicit racism involves overt discrimination, often linked to organized white supremacist groups like Stormfront, Aryan Nations, and the KKK.
What are some activities of organized racist groups?
They oppose “race mixing,” immigration, refugees, and Indigenous sovereignty, often accusing others of undermining the “white race” and Western civilization.
Give examples of violence committed by white supremacists in Canada.
Examples include the London, Ontario truck attack (2021) and the Quebec City mosque shooting (2017).
How does the internet influence organized racism?
Racist organizations use the internet to spread hate, raising concerns about freedom of expression versus hate speech.
What are hate crimes, and how are they defined in Canada?
Hate crimes are acts intended to intimidate, harm, or terrify an entire group, often based on race, religion, colour, ethnicity, or sexual orientation.
Why are hate crimes difficult to prove in court?
They require substantial evidence linking the act to intent motivated by hate against a specific group.
What types of surveys are used to gauge racism in Canada?
Victimization-type surveys and social distance surveys.
What do victimization-type surveys measure?
They assess individuals’ perceptions of being victims of racism and the extent of discrimination against specific groups.
What are the limitations of victimization surveys in measuring racism?
Individuals may not define their experiences as discrimination, and authorities may dismiss the results as subjective or biased.
What are social distance surveys?
These measure comfort or discomfort levels people feel toward members of different groups, indirectly gauging racial prejudice.
What did Bailey’s (2016) study reveal about Indigenous students in Canadian universities?
They experience microaggressions, such as low interaction with non-Indigenous peers, cultural misrepresentation, and social isolation.
What are some examples of microaggressions Indigenous students face?
Lack of opportunities to use Indigenous knowledge, unwelcoming environments, and unsettling informal social interactions.
What has research shown about Canadian attitudes toward visible minority immigration?
Attitudes have become more unfavorable over time, with some research criticized for legitimizing racist perspectives.
What is Institutional Racism?
Policies, practices, or procedures embedded within social and political institutions that disproportionately disadvantage certain racial or ethnic groups, often perpetuated without conscious intent.
What is Quantified Racism?
Racial inequalities that manifest in everyday life, not through intentional acts of racism, but through systemic normalization in areas like education, healthcare, and employment.
How does Institutional Racism operate?
Systematically, through normalized racial inequalities in education, criminal justice, healthcare, and housing, maintained by historical and cultural practices.
What are examples of Racism in Sports?
Unequal training opportunities, wage disparities, underrepresentation in leadership roles, biased media coverage, and fewer endorsement deals for athletes from racialized groups.
What does Carl James’ research suggest about racialized youth in sports?
Teenagers are encouraged to pursue sports based on stereotypes linked to their racialized group, with white kids often directed toward sports like hockey and tennis, and Black youth toward basketball or track & field.
What is the Rooney Rule, and what changes have been made to it?
A rule requiring NFL teams to interview at least one minority candidate for leadership positions. Changes now mandate teams to employ at least one offensive assistant coach from a minority background, aiming to diversify coaching pipelines.
What is the paradox of Racial Profiling and Policing?
Police under-police minorities as victims (not investigating thoroughly) and over-police them as suspects (disproportionate surveillance and charges), reinforcing systemic racism.
What is Amazon Rekognition, and why is it controversial?
A facial and vocal recognition tool used by law enforcement, criticized for disproportionately misidentifying people with darker skin and raising ethical concerns about surveillance.
What is Colorism in the context of sports commentary?
A bias where lighter-skinned athletes are more likely to be praised for mental skills like strategy, while darker-skinned athletes are often reduced to physical attributes like strength and speed.
What are Compensatory Draft Picks for Minority Talent in the NFL?
Teams receive extra draft picks if minority coaches or executives are hired away, incentivizing the development of diverse leadership pipelines.
How are race and religion interconnected as social constructs?
Both are ideas shaped by societies rather than biological facts, used historically to reflect power dynamics and include or exclude groups.
What role did religion play during European colonization in the context of race?
Religious differences were used to justify racial hierarchies, such as labeling Indigenous spiritual practices as “inferior” or “savage” to legitimize colonial violence.
How was Confucianism racialized by Western colonial powers in the 19th century?
It was dismissed as “exotic” or “backward” and tied to stereotypes of East Asians as submissive, disciplined, or collectivist.
What was the concept of “limpieza de sangre” during the Spanish Inquisition?
It enforced the idea that even converted Jews and Muslims had impure ancestry, linking religion with racial purity.
What is the racialization of religion?
It occurs when specific religious groups are associated with racial or ethnic identities, such as Jews being seen as a racial group or Sikhs, Hindus, and Muslims being misidentified as “Middle Eastern.”
How do race and religion intersect in shared experiences of discrimination?
For example, after 9/11, people perceived as Muslim faced scrutiny and violence, showing how race and religion shape people’s lives.
How has the intersection of race and religion contributed to solidarity?
Places of worship have supported movements like the Civil Rights Movement and offered cultural preservation for immigrant communities.
What was the significance of the 1939 Supreme Court ruling for Inuit people in Canada?
The court ruled that Inuit were to be considered “Indians” for constitutional purposes, but the Inuit resisted being categorized under the Indian Act and are now no longer constrained by it.
How do the Métis National Council (MNC) and Congress of Aboriginal Peoples differ in their definitions of Métis?
MNC: Defines Métis narrowly as individuals with historic Métis Nation ancestry distinct from other Indigenous Peoples.
Congress of Aboriginal Peoples: Uses a broader definition, including mixed populations beyond the historic Métis Nation.
How did the Indian Act of 1876 define Indian status, and how could individuals lose it?
Defined “Indian” based on bloodlines and community belonging.
Enfranchisement led to loss of status, including marrying a non-Indian, becoming a lawyer/minister, or earning a degree.
What are Non-Status Indians, and what caused them to lose their status?
Non-Status Indians are individuals who lost their legal Indian status due to enfranchisement provisions of the Indian Act, such as marrying non-Indians or leaving the country for extended periods.
What changes were introduced under Bill C-31 in 1985?
Eliminated enfranchisement provisions.
Reinstated status for some individuals.
Allowed bands to create membership codes.
Eliminated patrilineal definitions for Indian status.
What are the four main types of band membership codes in First Nations communities?
One-parent descent rules: Based on one parent’s membership.
Two-parent descent rules: Both parents must be members or eligible.
Blood quantum rules: Requires a specific percentage of Indian blood (often 50%).
Indian Act rules: Membership based on Indian Act sections.
How do Indigenous people in Canada compare to non-Indigenous populations in terms of social conditions?
Indigenous people face significant disparities in health, income, employment, and education and are overrepresented in federal and provincial prisons.
When did the Canadian government shift from using “Aboriginal” to “Indigenous,” and why?
The shift occurred in 2015, influenced by the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.
What is a “blood quantum” rule, and why is it controversial?
A blood quantum rule requires individuals to possess a specific percentage of Indigenous blood (e.g., 50%) to qualify for band membership.
Critics argue it pressures communities to maintain “racial purity” and discourages mixed unions.
How did feminist advocacy influence the creation of Bill C-31?
Feminist advocates pushed for the elimination of gender discrimination in the Indian Act, resulting in the reinstatement of Indian status for women who had lost it through marriage to non-Indians.
What is enfranchisement, and how did it impact Indigenous identity?
Enfranchisement was the process of losing legal Indian status, often forcibly, through actions like earning a university degree, becoming a minister, or marrying a non-Indian.
How did the Canadian government attempt to control Inuit identification between 1941 and 1971?
Inuit were required by law to wear orange identification tags, which acted as physical markers of their identity.
Why is there controversy over who can self-identify as Métis?
Definitions vary between organizations like the MNC and Congress of Aboriginal Peoples.
Some see increased census self-identification as an attempt to gain access to programs, creating debates over authenticity and membership.
What controversial elements are included in the Kahnawake Mohawk community’s membership code?
A moratorium on mixed marriages.
A requirement of 50% or more Native blood for future registration.
What was the significance of recent Supreme Court decisions regarding Métis people?
They established Métis as a rights-bearing group under federal jurisdiction, granting Indigenous rights such as hunting for food.
What does the term “First Nations” commonly refer to?
It describes “status” or “registered” Indians as defined under the Indian Act of 1876.
What is a key issue faced by Indigenous people in Canada’s criminal justice system?
Indigenous persons are significantly overrepresented in federal and provincial prisons compared to non-Indigenous populations.
What conflict arises between self-definition and legal definitions in Indigenous identity?
While individuals may self-identify as Indigenous, government-imposed legal definitions often clash with personal and community-based identity.
How did the Indian Act discriminate against women before 1985?
Indigenous women who married non-Indigenous men lost their status, as did their children, while non-Indigenous men who married Indigenous women could not gain status.
Why were early efforts to count Inuit populations problematic?
They lacked clear definitions of who should be counted, leading to inconsistent and contested population figures.
What hurdles are faced by individuals trying to reinstate their Indian status after enfranchisement?
Legal Systems: Complex and bureaucratic processes create delays and barriers.
Government Resistance: The government often pushes back against reinstatement efforts.
Harm and Violence: Enfranchisement caused systemic harm, leaving individuals to navigate stigmatization and exclusion.
What trends exist regarding Indigenous women in Canada’s prison system?
Indigenous women are disproportionately criminalized and incarcerated.
They are on track to make up 50% of the Indigenous prison population.
They are also more likely to be missing or murdered.
What disparities exist between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people in Canada?
Indigenous people face significant disparities in health, income, education, and employment.
They are overrepresented in prisons, with incarceration rates increasing significantly over the last 20 years.
These disparities are most pronounced among First Nations or status Indians living on reserves.
Why is it important to examine differences within Indigenous communities?
Homogenizing Indigenous people overlooks gender, class, and generational differences.
Understanding these internal distinctions highlights the diversity and complexity within Indigenous communities.
What gender disparities exist in leadership within Indigenous communities?
Fewer women serve as chiefs compared to men.
Indian women publicly challenged gender discrimination in the 1970s, especially the enfranchisement provisions of the Indian Act.
What divisions exist within Indigenous communities, according to Menno Boldt and Howard Adams?
Menno Boldt: Divided Indigenous communities into “elite” leaders and marginalized individuals outside political and economic power.
Howard Adams: Distinguished between the “Indigenous bourgeoisie” (elite leaders, business owners, administrators) and the “Indigenous underclass.”
How do Indigenous people resist systemic oppression and preserve their culture?
Maintaining traditional cultural and religious practices.
Using the courts to demand recognition of land and other rights.
Challenging government policies and advancing self-determination.
Participating in social movements such as Idle No More, Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women & Girls, and Wet’suwet’en protests.
How is cultural revitalization an act of resistance?
Indigenous communities work to preserve and restore languages and cultural practices, which were suppressed by colonial systems.
Why is the “elite” leadership within Indigenous communities criticized?
Critics argue that elite leaders benefit from political and economic control, while the majority remain excluded and marginalized.
Why are Indigenous persons overrepresented in Canadian prisons?
Systemic inequalities, historical marginalization, and socio-economic disparities contribute to the overrepresentation of Indigenous people in the justice system.
What factors contribute to the low income of Indigenous women, particularly those living on reserves?
Differences between Indigenous groups: Income varies significantly among different Indigenous communities.
Lowest income group: Registered Indigenous women living on reserves face the lowest income levels compared to other groups.
How do employment rates compare between Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations?
Non-Indigenous employment rate: 74%.
Indigenous employment rates are much lower, with significant variations between different Indigenous groups.
How do individuals with both Black and Indigenous identities experience their ancestral heritage?
Individuals who are both Black and Indigenous may feel pressured to choose one identity over the other.
These identities reflect different ancestral histories and experiences.
How do some individuals advocate for their ancestral homelands, even from a great distance?
Kim Kardashian’s advocacy for Armenia is an example, where she campaigned for recognition of the Armenian genocide.
Despite geographic distance, individuals and groups continue to engage in political and social advocacy for their ancestral homelands.
What changes in migration and mobility have influenced our understanding of diaspora and transnationalism?
Increased tourism and normalized travel, with 1.4 billion international tourists in 2018.
The shift from a “sedentarist” to a “new mobilities paradigm” encourages a broader understanding of migration and identity, moving away from nation-state-centered perspectives.
What critiques have been made about ethnicity and “race” paradigms in migration studies?
These paradigms focus too much on processes like assimilation and ethnic conflict.
Scholars argue for a move away from “methodological nationalism,” which confines analysis to the boundaries of nation-states.
Why have the concepts of diaspora and transnationalism emerged and become important?
To better understand the relationships between immigrant groups, their homelands, and their identities, especially in the context of globalization and migration.
How is diaspora understood in contemporary scholarship, and why is it important?
Diaspora refers to the dispersal of a group from its original homeland, often due to trauma or violence.
It involves a collective memory, strong ethnic consciousness, and an attachment to both the homeland and the host society.
What are the different types of diasporas, according to Cohen?
Victim diasporas - Forced migration due to violence or persecution.
Imperial diasporas - Migrations driven by empire-building.
Labour diasporas - Movement for work opportunities.
Trade diasporas - Migrations tied to trade and economic networks.
Cultural diasporas - Shared cultural identity, even without direct ties to the homeland.
What are return movements in diaspora communities, and how are they facilitated?
Return movements involve people or communities returning to their ancestral homelands.
Countries may offer citizenship or support for these movements, such as Irish Citizenship by Descent or F-4 Visa for Overseas Koreans.
How do diasporic communities contribute to social movements and activism?
Many diasporic communities face discrimination, which can lead to collective action.
These communities may also support their homelands financially, especially during crises.
What is the Canadian diaspora, and how does it manifest?
Canada is both a country of immigration and a source of emigration.
As of 2016, around 4 million Canadians live abroad, with significant numbers in the U.S., Hong Kong, the U.K., Lebanon, and Australia.
How does the term diaspora compare to hyphenated identities?
Diaspora may be preferred by some communities (e.g., African Canadians) over hyphenated identities like African American because it reflects a deeper connection to their ancestral homeland rather than the experience of assimilation in the host country.
The term diaspora emphasizes the sense of being part of a collective with shared history and struggles, often rooted in traumatic dispersal.
What is the key difference between diaspora and transnationalism?
Diaspora refers to a community’s emotional and cultural connection to its homeland and the collective memory of its past.
Transnationalism emphasizes the ongoing relationships, networks, and interactions between people in different countries, transcending national borders, but does not always carry the same historical or emotional weight as diaspora.
What role does collective memory play in diaspora communities?
Diasporic communities often maintain a collective memory of their homeland, which may be idealized or mythologized.
This collective memory helps preserve cultural identity and solidarity, even if members of the diaspora have never been to the homeland or left it generations ago.
How does ethnic group consciousness manifest in diasporic communities?
Ethnic group consciousness in diaspora communities is sustained by shared cultural practices, language, and traditions.
This consciousness fosters a strong sense of solidarity among members, often rooted in a shared experience of displacement and a commitment to preserving cultural identity.
What emotional attachment is central to the diasporic experience?
The emotional connection to the homeland, often marked by longing, nostalgia, and a desire to return, even if it is physically or practically impossible.
This attachment may be tied to memories of trauma, displacement, or the ideals of a better life that are imagined or romanticized.
What are victim diasporas, and how are they formed?
Victim diasporas are formed when communities are forcibly displaced due to violence, persecution, or war.
Examples include Jewish diasporas after the Holocaust or Armenian diasporas resulting from the Armenian genocide.
These groups often share a narrative of trauma and loss that binds them together across generations.
What are labour diasporas, and why do they form?
Labour diasporas are created when people move to other countries seeking work opportunities.
These movements are often driven by economic necessity, with groups such as Indian workers in the UK or Mexican workers in the U.S. forming significant diasporic communities.
While initially economic, these groups often develop strong cultural and social networks that maintain a connection to their homeland.
What factors influence return movements within diasporic communities?
Return movements often occur when individuals or communities feel a sense of attachment or obligation to their homeland.
These movements are often influenced by policies that offer support, such as citizenship offers (e.g., Irish Citizenship by Descent) or incentives for individuals to return to work or settle in their ancestral homelands.
What are imperial diasporas, and what role did they play historically?
Imperial diasporas involve people sent by empires to establish control or governance in colonies.
For example, French imperial diasporas sent French nationals to various parts of Africa, establishing a colonial presence.
These communities often maintained privileges within the colonial system and were key to maintaining imperial control.
How do cultural diasporas differ from other types of diasporas?
Cultural diasporas are not always formed by forced migration but by the shared cultural practices and identity of people who identify with a specific ethnic or national group.
An example is the African diaspora, where people of African descent maintain cultural connections to their ancestral homeland, even if they have never been to Africa.
How has globalization affected the movement and connectivity of diaspora communities?
Globalization has facilitated the movement and connections between diaspora communities through technology, social media, and international travel.
It allows for the rapid exchange of ideas, cultures, and resources between homelands and the diaspora, strengthening transnational ties.
How do host societies impact diaspora communities?
Host societies can influence diaspora communities through assimilation or exclusion, creating either a more integrated or isolated experience.
Many diasporic communities face discrimination, marginalization, or even hostility, which shapes their identity and experiences in the host country.
How does Basch et al. (1994) define transnationalism?
Transnationalism refers to the processes by which immigrants forge and sustain multi-stranded social relations that link their societies of origin and settlement.
What are the different ways transnationalism is defined and analyzed within social science literature?
Social Morphology: New ethnic communities are formed.
Consciousness: Multiple and overlapping identities.
Cultural Reproduction: Fluidity of styles, practices, and institutions.
Avenue of Capital: Movement of money and resources (e.g., remittances).
Political Engagement: Involvement in the political processes of the homeland.
What does transnationalism as social morphology refer to?
The formation of new kinds of ethnic communities that share characteristics with diasporas, but are defined by their connections across national borders.
How is transnationalism related to identity?
It refers to the overlapping and hybrid identities that individuals develop, allowing them to engage with both their new society and their ancestral society.
Example: Youth maintaining cultural practices while integrating into a new society (e.g., “keeping it hallah” in American culture)
What does transnationalism as cultural reproduction mean?
It refers to the fluid movement and transformation of cultural styles, social institutions, and everyday practices across borders.
Example: Bollywood’s international popularity or South Korea’s film industry thriving after Parasite’s success.
How does transnationalism serve as an avenue of capital?
It involves the movement of resources like remittances from immigrants to their home countries, contributing to both the local economies and global financial networks.
Wealthier, elite transnational migrants may hold multiple citizenships and participate in the global circulation of wealth.
How do immigrants engage politically in the context of transnationalism?
Immigrants continue to engage politically with their ancestral homelands while balancing their loyalty to their new country.
This form of political engagement does not require dual citizenship, raising questions about transnational political ties and loyalties.
Are the concepts of diaspora and transnationalism valuable to race and ethnicity scholarship? Why or why not?
These concepts are valuable as they help explore the complex identities and experiences of marginalized groups in both host societies and their countries of origin, including factors such as ethnicity, gender, and exclusion.
Are the distinctions between immigrants, migrants, and refugees still relevant?
The distinctions still have socio-legal impacts on community formations and transnational practices but need reconsideration in the context of modern migration patterns.
Is transnationalism a historically new phenomenon?
While transnationalism has existed in some form for a long time, new technologies have brought it to the forefront of scholarly attention, making it more visible in the modern era.
Are nation-states irrelevant to diaspora and transnationalism?
Nation-states still play a significant role in transnational politics, identity, and the interactions between diaspora communities and their homelands, despite the rise of global connections.
Is assimilation irrelevant in the study of transnationalism?
Assimilation is not irrelevant; while immigrants maintain their transnational or diaspora identities, they still navigate the conditions of existence in their host country, often balancing cultural integration with preservation of their heritage.
Are marginality and exclusion driving forces in transnationalism?
Marginalization, exclusion, and blocked mobility are significant factors, but there is also an elite type of transnationalism, where privileged groups participate in the global circulation of capital and resources.
How has the government impacted immigration policies, specifically regarding Private Sponsorship Refugees (PSRs)?
The government has reduced PSRs by two-thirds, changing the way refugees are sponsored and supported, which impacts migration flows and transnational practices.
What is transnationalism?
Transnationalism refers to the processes by which immigrants maintain social, cultural, political, and economic connections across national borders, forming relationships between their country of origin and their country of settlement.
What does social morphology in transnationalism mean?
Social morphology refers to the formation of new ethnic communities that exist across national borders, often forming fluid and dynamic networks similar to diasporas.
How does transnationalism as a type of consciousness manifest?
Transnationalism as consciousness involves hybrid identities—individuals identifying with and participating in multiple cultures, such as someone identifying both as Canadian and Chinese, influenced by both cultures.
What does transnationalism as a mode of cultural reproduction refer to?
It refers to the preservation, transformation, and circulation of cultural practices across borders, such as the global spread of Bollywood films or K-pop that influence cultural identity beyond the homeland.
What role does capital and remittances play in transnationalism?
Transnationalism facilitates the movement of remittances—money sent by immigrants to their home countries, supporting their economies. It also involves the movement of capital, especially by elite transnational migrants who hold multiple citizenships and participate in global economic networks.
How does political engagement relate to transnationalism?
Political engagement in transnationalism refers to immigrants’ continued involvement in the political processes of both their country of settlement and homeland, such as voting or advocacy for issues affecting their origin country.
What is the difference between diaspora and transnationalism?
Diaspora typically refers to the dispersal of a group from their homeland, often involving trauma or forced migration, while transnationalism focuses on the ongoing connections and relationships across borders that people maintain, including cultural, political, and economic ties.
What is elite transnationalism?
Elite transnationalism refers to wealthy migrants who possess multiple citizenships and move easily across borders, participating in the global circulation of capital, commodities, and services.
How does transnationalism impact identity?
Transnationalism allows individuals to maintain multiple, overlapping identities, navigating between the cultural norms and values of both their homeland and host country, creating hybrid identities.
How does transnationalism relate to globalization?
Transnationalism is deeply connected to globalization as it reflects the movement of people, culture, capital, and ideas across borders, driven by global interconnectedness and the technological ability to stay linked to multiple places simultaneously.
