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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
0
Q

Homozygote

A

An organism with two alleles of the same type (BB or bb)

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1
Q

Heredity

A

How parents pass characteristics to their offspring

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2
Q

Heterozygote

A

An organism with two different alleles (Bb)

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3
Q

Dominant allele

A

The expressed allele (B)

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4
Q

Recessive allele

A

The allele that isn’t expressed (b)

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5
Q

Phenotype

A

The expression of an organism’s genotype (if genotype=BB, then phenotype=purple)

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6
Q

Genotype

A

Made up of the alleles an individual inherits (BB, Bb, bb)

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7
Q

Co-dominance

A

When both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype of the heterozygote (half red and half white flower)

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8
Q

Incomplete dominance

A

When the dominant allele is not completely dominant in the heterozygote and is influenced by the recessive allele (red and white alleles make pink)

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9
Q

Punnett square

A

Chart that allows you to easily determine the expected percents of different genotypes in the offspring of two parents

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10
Q

Test cross

A

When you cross pollinate plants to find out about the characteristics and traits of the parents and offspring

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11
Q

Allele

A

One of two or more different alleles of the same gene

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12
Q

Chromosome

A

Coiled structures made of DNA and proteins

The form in which the genetic material of a cell goes through cell division

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13
Q

Locus

A

The position of a gene on a chromosome

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14
Q

Genetics

A

The science of heredity

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15
Q

Gregor Mendel

A

Father of Genetics

Studied pea plants to figure out how parents passed down characteristics to their offspring

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16
Q

Cell Division

A

The process in which one cell, called the parent cell, divides to form two new cells, referred to as daughter cells
Used to grow and repair and reproduce
Prokaryotic cells divide most often by using binary fission
Eukaryotic cells divide using mitosis

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17
Q

Binary Fission

A

The way that a prokaryotic cell divides
First step is DNA Replication
Second step is Chromosome Segregation
Third step is Segregation/Cytokinesis

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18
Q

Step 1 in Binary fission- DNA Replication

A

Just before the cell divides, the DNA is copied to make two identical chromosomes so each of the daughter cells can have their own chromosome.

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19
Q

Step 2 in Binary Fission- Chromosome Segregation

A

The two chromosomes pull to opposite sides (poles) of the cell

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20
Q

Step 3 in Binary Fission- Segregation/Cytokinesis

A

A new plasma membrane starts to grow through the middle of the cell, and the cytoplasm splits apart, forming two daughter cells. As the cell pulls apart, the new and original chromosomes are separated, so the daughter cells are identical to each other and their parent cell. New cell wall must form around the new cells

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21
Q

Mitosis

A 
How eukaryotic cells divide
Step 1-Prophase
Step 2-Metaphase
Step 3-Anaphase
Step 4-Telophase
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22
Q

Cytokinesis in Mitosis

A

The cytoplasm splits in two and new daughter cells form
Animals > pinches in towards the middle
Plants > cell plate forms at equator, then new plasma membrane and cell wall form along each side of the plate

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23
Q

The cell cycle

A

A repeating series of events that include growth, DNA synthesis and cell division
In prokaryotes, it grows, replicates it’s DNA and divides
In eukaryotes, it is more complicated

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24
Q

Eukaryotic cell cycle

A

Has two main phases
First phase is the Mitotic phase which includes Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Other phase is interphase which includes Growth Phase 1 (G1), Synthesis Phase (S), and Growth Phase 2 (G2)

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25
Q

Interphase

A

Stage of the eukaryotic cell cycle where the cell grows, performs routine life processes, and prepares to divide

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26
Q

Growth Phase 1 (G1 stage)

A

Cell grows rapidly, while performing routine metabolic processes
Makes proteins needed for DNA replication
Copies some of its organelles in preparation for cell division
A cell typically spends most of its life in this phase

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27
Q

Synthesis Phase (S stage)

A

The cells DNA is replicated in the process of DNA replication

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28
Q

Growth Phase 2 (G2 phase)

A

Cell makes final preparations to divide (ex. Makes additional proteins and gametes)

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29
Q

Chromatin

A

Form of DNA that is not coiled into chromosomes. Instead it exists as a grainy material

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30
Q

Chromatids

A

Two identical strands of DNA that make up a chromosome and split when a cell divides

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31
Q

Centromere

A

The region where the chromatids unite—>in the middle of the chromosome

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32
Q

Gene

A

Unit that contains instructions for making proteins hthat is located in chromosomes

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33
Q

Homologous Chromosome

A

Pair of chromosomes that are inherited from parents.
Each chromosome from one parent has a match of the same size, shape and genes from the other parent, and together, they make up one set of homologous chromosomes

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34
Q

Prophase - Mitosis

A

First, longest stage of mitosis
Chromatin condense into chromosomes
Membrane breaks down
Spindle fibers start to form from centrioles

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35
Q

Metaphase - Mitosis

A

Second phase of mitosis
Spindle fibers attach to one chromatid from each chromosome, which have lined up at the equator of the cell
One spindle from each side will take half of a chromosome, insuring that each daughter cell will have identical DNA

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36
Q

Anaphase - Mitosis

A

Third phase of mitosis
Sister chromatids separate, pulled by the spindle fibers to opposite poles of the cell.
Each pole has a complete set of chromosomes

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37
Q

Telophase - Mitosis

A

Fourth stage of mitosis
Chromosomes begin to unspindle into chromatin
Spindle breaks down
New nuclear membranes form

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38
Q

Reproduction

A

The process by which organisms give rise to offspring
One characteristic of all living things
There is sexual and asexual reproduction

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39
Q

Asexual reproduction

A

One parent
Results in offspring that are genetically identical to each other and parent
Very fast way to reproduce
All prokaryotes and some eukaryotes reproduce this way
There is binary fission, budding, and fragmentation

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40
Q

Sexual Reproduction

A

Two parents
Parents produce reproductive cells called gametes, which are haploid cells, and they unite in a process called fertilization, and the resulting cell is called a zygote, which is a diploid cell.
Gametes are produced by a type of cell division called Meiosis.

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41
Q

Haploid Cell

A

Cells that contain only half the number of chromosomes found in other cells of an organism (n)

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42
Q

Diploid Cell

A

Has twice the number of chromosomes as a haploid cell (2n)

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43
Q

Meiosis

A

Type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes by half, and produces haploid gametes.
Total of four cells are produced
There is Meiosis I and Meiosis II

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44
Q

Meiosis I

A 
First phase of Meiosis 
Homologous chromosomes exchange sections of DNA, called crossing over
Stages of Meiosis I
   Prophase I
   Metaphase I
   Anaphase I
   Telophase I
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45
Q

Prophase I - Meiosis I

A

First stage of Meiosis I
Membrane begins to break down
Chromosomes condense
Centrioles move to opposite poles and spindle begins to form
Homologous chromosomes pair up> unique to Prophase I

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46
Q

Metaphase I - Meiosis I

A

Second stage of Meiosis I
Spindle fibers attach to one of the homologous chromosomes
Homologous chromosomes line up at equator of cell

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47
Q

Anaphase I - Meiosis I

A

Third stage of Meiosis I

Spindle fibers pull one of each homologous chromosomes to opposite poles of the cell

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48
Q

Telophase I and Cytokinesis- Meiosis I

A

Fourth stage of Meiosis I
Spindle breaks down
New membranes form and cytoplasm of cell divides
Two haploid daughter cells result, each having a random assortment of chromosomes with one from each homologous pair due to crossing over before Meiosis

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49
Q

Meiosis II

A 
Second phase of Meiosis
Stages of Meiosis II
   Prophase II
   Metaphase II
   Anaphase II
   Telophase II
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50
Q

Prophase II - Meiosis II

A

First stage of Meiosis II
Membrane starts to break down
Centrioles separate and spindle starts to form

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51
Q

Metaphase II - Meiosis II

A

Second stage of Meiosis II

Spindle fibers line up the sister chromatids of each chromosome along the equator of the cell

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52
Q

Anaphase II - Meiosis II

A

Third stage of Meiosis II

Spindle fibers pull sister chromatids to opposite poles

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53
Q

Telophase II and Cytokinesis - Meiosis II

A

Last stage of Meiosis II
Spindle breaks down
New membrane forms
Cytoplasm divides and four haploid cells result
Each cell has a unique combination of chromosomes

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54
Q

Gametogenesis

A

The development of haploid cells into gametes

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55
Q

Crossing-over

A

Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes

Results in new combinations of genes on each chromosome

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56
Q

Independent assortment

A

When cells divide during Meiosis, homologous chromosomes are randomly distributed to daughter cells, and different chromosomes segregate independently of eachother, resulting in gametes that have unique combinations of chromosomes

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57
Q

Life cycle

A

Diploids parents produce haploid gametes that unite and develop onto diploid adults

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58
Q

Polarity

A

A difference in electrical charge between different parts of the same molecule

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59
Q

Proton

A

Positively charged atom

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60
Q

Neutron

A

Atom with no charge

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61
Q

Electron

A

Negatively charged atom

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62
Q

Molecule

A

Group of atoms held together by bonding that can be changed in a chemical reaction

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63
Q

Hydrogen Bond

A

Bond between molecules that holds them together

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64
Q

Properties of water

A

Sticks together due to hydrogen bonds
Liquid needed by all living things
Expands when frozen, floats
Ph of 7- neutral point on scale

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65
Q

Matter

A

Anything that takes up space or has mass

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66
Q

Element

A

A pure substance
Cannot be broken down into other substances
Made of one atom
Cannot be broken down smaller

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67
Q

Compound

A

A substance that consists of two or more elements

Smallest part is molecule

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68
Q

Chemical bond

A

Force that holds molecules together

69
Q

Chemical reaction

A

Process that changes some chemical substances into others

To change an element into a compound and change it back needs a chemical reaction

70
Q

Adhesion

A

Molecules sticking to other molecules of a different kind

71
Q

Cohesion

A

Molecules sticking to other of the same type of molecules

72
Q

Most important element of life

A

Carbon

73
Q

Organic compounds

A 
A compound found mainly in living things
Make up cells and other structures in living things and carry out the processes of life
Four groups
   Carbohydrates
   Lipids
   Nucleic acids
   Proteins
74
Q

Carbohydrate

A 
Organic compound (ex. sugar or starch)
Used to store energy
Made of monosaccharides
75
Q

Properties of water

A

Adhesion
Cohesion
Surface tension

76
Q

Monosaccharide

A

Simple sugar such as fructose or glucose
Fructose>fruits
Glucose>cells of most organisms

77
Q

Polysaccharide

A

Complex carbohydrate that forms when simple sugars bind together in a chain
Used for storing energy and forming structures of living things
Ex. Starch, glycogen, cellulose

78
Q

Lipid

A 
Organic compound such as fat or oil
Used to store energy and other uses
Made of fatty acids>either saturated or unsaturated
Some contain alcohol or phosphate groups
   Triglycerides
   Phospholipids
   Steroids
79
Q

Saturated fatty acids

A

Carbon atoms are bonds to as many hydrogen atoms as possible, forming straight chains
Solids at room temperature
Used in animal cells to store energy

80
Q

Unsaturated fatty acids

A

Carbon atoms are not bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible, so chains bend
Liquids at room temperature
Used by plants to store energy

81
Q

Phospholipids

A

Type of lipid
The main component of cellular membranes
Hydrophobic tales and hydrophilic heads

82
Q

Protein

A

Organic compound made up of small molecules of amino acids
Help cells keep shape, make up muscle tissues, speed up chemical reactions in cells, antibodies, carry messages or materials

83
Q

Polypeptide

A

Chain of amino acids bound together that makes up a protein

84
Q

Nucleic acid

A

Type of organic compound such as DNA or RNA

Built of nucleotides

85
Q

Nucleotide

A

Consist of sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogen base

Makes up nucleic acid

86
Q

Polynucleotide

A

Chain of many nucleotides bound together

87
Q

DNA

A

In all cells
Nucleic acid
Made of two polynucleotide chains
Contains the genetic instructions that cells need to make proteins

88
Q

RNA

A

Nucleic acid

Made of one polynucleotide chain

89
Q

Cell theory

A

All organisms are made of one or more cells
All the life functions of organisms occur within cells
All cells come from already existing cells

90
Q

Cell size

A

Smaller the cell, the easier it is to get materials in and out
The bigger the volume, the less of a ratio of volume to area

91
Q

Cell shape

A

Cells with different functions have different shapes
Nerve cell delivers messages>long extensions
Algae swim around>have tails
Pollen help pollenate plants>spikes to stick to insects

92
Q

Plasma membrane (cell membrane)

A

In all cells
Thin coat of lipids that surrounds the cell
Creates physical boundary between cell and environment
“Skin” of cell

93
Q

Cytoplasm

A

In all cells
All the cellular material inside plasma membrane
Made up of watery substance called cytosol
Functions:
Suspending cell organelles
Pushing against the cell membrane to keep cells shape
Providing a site for reactions of cell

94
Q

Ribosomes

A

In all cells
Structures in cytoplasm where proteins are made
Contain nucleic acid RNA, which helps make proteins

95
Q

Nucleus

A 
Structure in eukaryotic cells
Surrounded by a nuclear membrane
Contains the DNA
Largest organelle in eukaryotic cells
Controls which proteins the cell makes
96
Q

Prokaryotic cell

A

Cells without nucleus
Single celled organisms
DNA floats in cytoplasm
Organisms made of prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes

97
Q

Eukaryotic cell

A

Contains a nucleus

Multicellular organisms

98
Q

Organelle

A

Structure within cytoplasm that performs a specific job in the cell

99
Q

Phospholipid bilayer

A

Phospholipids in the cell membrane

Two layers with hydrophilic heads pointing out and hydrophobic tails pointing in

100
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Consists of threadlike filaments that support the cell and holds organelles in place

101
Q

Mitochondria

A

Organelle that makes energy available to the cell
Make ATP from glucose
Contain own DNA
Once free living but joined the rest of cell because it helped them both

102
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum

A

Organelle that helps make and transport proteins and lipids
Rough (RER) studded with ribosomes
Smooth (SER) no ribosomes, makes vesicles, makes lipids, stores substances

103
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

Organelle that processes proteins and prepares them for transport inside and outside of cell
Also helps in transport of lipids around cell

104
Q

Vesicles

A

Sac like organelles that store and transport materials in the cell
Some pinch off from SER and transport lipids and proteins
Some used as chambers for biochemical reactions
Lysosomes-use enzymes to break down foreign and dead things
Peroxisomes-break down poisons

105
Q

Vacuoles

A

Sac like organelles that store and transport materials in the cell

106
Q

Centrioles

A

Only in animal cells
Organelles involved in cell division
Make sure the daughter cells get equal amounts of mitochondria
Spindle fibers come from this

107
Q

Cell wall

A 
Only in plant cells
Rigid layer that surrounds cell membrane
Supports and protects cell
Tiny pores allow things in the cell
Made up of complex carbohydrates
108
Q

Central vacuoles

A 
Only in plant cells
Very large
Stores things such as water, enzymes and salts
Helps plant tissues stay rigid
Helps give flowers their colors
109
Q

Plastids

A

Only in plant cells
Contain own DNA
Chloroplasts- contain green pigment, collect light energy and make food
Chromoplasts- make and store other pigments
Leucoplasts- store substances such as starch and make amino acids
May have once been free living

110
Q

Organization of groups of cells

A

Single cell-lives alone
Biofilm-thin layer of bacteria
Colonies-organized structure of many cells
Multicellular organism-many cells and cells for different things

111
Q

Levels of organization in cells

A

Cell-level>cells for different things but they work alone
Tissue-level>groups of cells for different things
Organ-level>two or more tissues work together
Organ system-level>groups of organs work together

112
Q

Selectively permeable

A

Cell membrane can choose what it wants in it and what it doesn’t

113
Q

Passive transport

A 
Occurs without any added energy
High to low concentration
   Diffusion
   Osmosis
   Facilitated diffusion
114
Q

Diffusion

A

Passive transport

Movement of a substance across a cell membrane to to concentration without any help from other molecules

115
Q

Osmosis

A

Type of passive transport

Diffusion of water across a cell membrane

116
Q

Facilitated transport

A

Passive transport

Diffusion with the help of transport proteins

117
Q

Transport proteins

A

Special proteins in the membrane that help certain substances get across
Channel-pores or holes in the membrane
Carrier- bond with substance and change shape to get it across

118
Q

Active transport

A

When energy is needed to get a substance across the cell membrane
Low concentration to high concentration
May use transport protiens

119
Q

Sodium potassium pump

A

Active transport
Sodium(Na)-out of cell
Potassium(K)-in cell
low to high concentration

120
Q

Vesicle transport

A

Active transport
Very large molecules cross this way
Endocytosis goes in
Exocytosis goes out

121
Q

Endocytosis

A

Type of vesicle transport
Big molecules go into the cell
Plasma membrane engulfs substance, then pinches of and moves inside cell carrying the substance

122
Q

Exocytosis

A

Type of vesicle transport
Big molecules out of the cell
Vesicle containing substance moves to cell membrane then attaches and opens, releasing the substance

123
Q

Concentration gradient

A

The path that a substance wants to follow to go from high to low concentration

124
Q

Hypotonic

A

In osmosis when the cell has more water inside then out, if it bursts, it is called Cytolysis

125
Q

Isotonic

A

In osmosis when the concentration of water is equal

126
Q

Hypertonic

A

In osmosis when the cell has less water in it then outside of it, if it shrivels it’s call Plasmolysis

127
Q

Homeostasis

A

The process of maintaining stable conditions inside the cell

128
Q

Turgor pressure

A

The pressure exerted on a plants cell wall by water (turgidy)

129
Q

Monohybrid

A

A thing with characteristics with only two traits possible, so it’s easy to track the genes

130
Q

Sex chromosome

A

The one set of chromosomes that determines ones gender

XX or XY

131
Q

Autosomes

A

The twenty two pairs of chromosomes that are normal, not the sex chromosomes

132
Q

Equation of photosynthesis

A

6CO2 + 6H2O + Light energy -> C6H12O6 + 6O2

133
Q

Equation of cellular respiration

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + Chemical energy (in ATP)

134
Q

Autotrophs

A

Organisms that make their own food
Plants, algae, some bacteria
Producers

135
Q

Heterotrophs

A

Organisms that cannot make their own food
Animals, fungi, many single cellular organisms
Consumers

136
Q

Photosynthesis

A 
Process in which autotrophs make food
Turn light energy water and carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen
Two stages
   Light reactions
   Calvin Cycle
137
Q

Light reactions in photosynthesis

A

Occurs in thykaloid membrane
Photons strike photosystem II and excite two electrons, that go down an electron transport chain
Same time, water molecule splits, producing two electrons, oxygen and hydrogen
Excited electrons not excited anymore, go to photosystem I, get more light energy, continue down chain
Combine with NADH to make NADPH
Hydrogen ions move back to stroma with help of ATP synthase, which uses energy to make ATP out of ADP

138
Q

Structure of chloroplasts

A

Contains stacks of grana which consists of thykaloid membranes, which contain photo systems, which are groups of molecules that include chlorophyll
Light reactions occur in the thykaloid membranes

139
Q

Stroma

A

The space outside of the thykaloid membranes

140
Q

Pigments

A

Coloring of an organism

141
Q

Chemiosmotic gradient

A

The path that the hydrogen ions follow to get back to the stroma because of diffusion

142
Q

Calvin cycle

A

Occurs in stroma
Carbon fixation- carbon makes 3 carbon compound
Reduction- takes energy from ATP and NADPH from light reactions to make 3 more energized molecules, one goes on to make glucose, others stay
Regeneration- use ATP to go back to pre molecule

143
Q

NADPH

A

An energy carrying molecule used in photosynthesis and cellular respiration

144
Q

ATP

A

Adenosine triphosphate

An energy carrying molecule that is used by cells for energy

145
Q

Cellular respiration

A

Process used in all organisms to turn glucose into ATP
Glycolysis
Krebs cycle
Electron transport

146
Q

Glycolycis

A

Anaerobic
Means glucose splitting
Turns glucose into two molecules of Pyruvate and uses 2 molecules of ATP to make 4, so a net gain of 2 ATP

147
Q

Krebs Cycle

A 
Aerobic
2 rounds
Occurs in matrix of Mitochondrion
Products: 16 energy carriers
   6 molecules of carbon dioxide
   4 ATP (two from glycolysis)
   10 NADH (two from glycolysis)
   2 FADH
Pyruvate goes into cycle
Citric acid forms
Energy captured in NADH, ATP, and FADH
Oxygen released as waste
148
Q

Electron transport

A

Aerobic
Occurs in inner membrane of Mitochondrion
Makes 34 more ATP, and total of 38
NADH and FADH make ATP
Move along chain
Energy moves hydrogen ions from matrix to inner membrane space
Then they move back out to the lower concentration in the matrix
ATP synthase is channel protein and captures energy to make ATP molecules

149
Q

Aerobic respiration

A

Cellular respiration that needs Oxygen

150
Q

Anaerobic respiration

A

Cellular respiration that doesn’t need oxygen

151
Q

Fermentation

A

Way of making aot without oxygen
Includes glycolysis but not other two
Lactic acid
Alcoholic

152
Q

Alcoholic fermentation

A

In glycolysis, the pyruvic acid changes into alcohol and carbon dioxide

153
Q

Lactic acid fermentation

A

In glycolysis the pyruvic acid changes into lactic acid

Happens in humans and causes soreness

154
Q

Pyruvic acid

A

3 carbon molecules made in glycolysis that continue to the Krebs cycle

155
Q

NAD/NADH

A

Other carrier molecules

156
Q

Cellular respiration and photosynthesis

A

The products of one are the reactants of the other

157
Q

Oxygen in cellular respiration and stuff

A

Oxygen can help there be more ATP, which is more effective

158
Q

Law of Segregation

A

There are two factors controlling a given characteristic, one of which dominates the other, and these factors separate and go to different gametes when a parent reproduces

159
Q

Law of Independent Assortment

A

Factors controlling different characteristics are inherited independently of one another.

160
Q

Regulatory proteins

A

Make sure that the cell is ready to move from one phase to the next in the cell cycle.
Three key checkpoints, one at the end of G1 phase, one during as phase, one during Mitosis.
If it’s not ready during G1, it goes through a period called G0

161
Q

Cancer

A

A disease that occurs when the cell cycle is no longer regulated, which can occur when the DNA gets damaged
This can be because of exposure to hazards such as radiation or toxic chemicals
Cells generally divide much faster than normal cells
May form mass of cells called a tumor
Can eventually lead to death

162
Q

Fragmentation

A

Type of asexual reproduction
Occurs when organism splits or breaks into fragments, and a new organism develops from each piece
Ex. Starfish

163
Q

Budding

A

Type of asexual reproduction
Occurs when a parent cell forms a bubble-like bud, which stays on the organism as it grows and develops. When it is fully developed, it breaks away and forms a new organism.

164
Q

Periodic table

A

Table containing all of the elements, ordered in rows and columns

165
Q

Surface tension

A

Water has surface tension

166
Q

Triglycerides

A

Type of lipid

The main form of stored energy in animals

167
Q

Steroids

A

Type of lipid

Serve as chemical messengers and have other roles

168
Q

Flagella/cilia

A

Extensions of the cellular membrane
Flagella-tail like extensions
Cilia-brush like extensions

169
Q

Macromolecule

A

A very large molecule

170
Q

Wavelenghs

A

Affect the colors of light

Biology Final (1 decks)

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