Final Flashcards
1
Q
Macro-evolution
A
evolution above the species level
2
Q
micro-evolution
A
evolution below the species level
3
Q
speciation
A
occurs when one species splits into two, which involves a reproductive isolating mechanism
4
Q
Example of reproductive isolation but NOT speciation
A
leopard frogs in Florida vs Maine, can still reproduce but just can’t because they are isolated; gene flow can happen
5
Q
extrinsic isolating mechanism
A
factors producing geographic isolation which physically separates individuals (ex: movement of tectonic plates; mountains)
5
Q
Intrinsic/Pre-zygotic
A
not a physical barrier of separation; this isolating mechanism prevents sperm from meeting the egg; prevents zygote from ever forming
5
Q
Example of pre-zygotic isolating mechanism
A
Different pine tree species produce pollen at different times of the year
5
Q
Post-zygotic
A
a zygote forms but might have a mutation that will cause it die after
5
Q
examples of post-zygotic isolating mechanism
A
infant can be born but is sick and dies; the resultant offspring is sterile
5
Q
fundamental principle of natural selection
A
rate of evolutionary change is directly proportional to the degree of variability in the population
6
Q
corollary natural selection principle
A
fate of all evolutionary lineages is extinction; 99.9% of all lineages ever existing on Earth went extinct
6
Q
anagenesis
A
Slow, very gradual, incremental changes that aren’t noticeable
7
Q
cladogenesis
A
Reproductive isolation, speciation proper
8
Q
phyletic gradualism
A
emphasizes anagenesis; slow change over time that leads to formation of a new species
8
Q
punctuated equilibrium
A
emphasizes cladogenesis; evolutionary change from sudden speciation events
9
Q
adaptive radiation
A
rapid expansion and diversification of a group of organisms as they adapt to newly available ecological space
9
Q
biological species
A
a group of natural interbreeding population that are reproductively isolated from other such groups
10
Q
Generalized
A
exploit wide range of ecological space (a broadly defined eco-niche) “Jack of all trades, ace of none”
11
Q
Specialized
A
Specialized in a narrowly defined eco-niche “Ace of one trade”
12
Q
overspecialized
A
Overspecialization leads to extinction
13
Q
phylogenetic relationships
A
Anatomical similarity, and homo & analogy
14
Q
evolutionary homology
A
homologies encompass similarities between organisms due to common ancestry, e.g., human arm and bat wing; homologous structures often have different functions
15
Q
evolutionary Analogy (Homoplasy)
A
Similarities between organisms that were independently evolved; similar functions: similar “solution” to similar selective pressures; anatomical similarity due to similarity in function not common ancestry (wings and birds vs wings in insects)
16
Q
Homoplasy: Convergence
A
Analogy in drastically unrelated organisms; Marsupials in Australia & placentral mammals (tazmanian tiger is marsupial but looks like a dog)
17
Homoplasy :parallelism
Analogy in closely reltaed organisms, procumbent incisors: Lemurs & Goeldi's Monkey
17
primitve/ancestral traits
Trait retianed in ancestral form (pentadactyly)
17
derived traits
Modification in the ancestral form (Nails, Hoofs, Clover Hoof) which came from claws
17
shared derived traits
Cloven hoof for cow, goat, deer; use homologous shared derived traits, dont use ancestral traits
17
Primate order characteristics
Emphasis on vision: good depth perception; color vision; postorbital bar or postorbital septum
Reduced snout
auditory bulla
prehensile hands & feet
increased cerebral cortex
decreased litter size
18
Post-orbital bar
no postorbital closure
18
Post-orbital partition (septum/closure)
postorbital closure --eye is in socket
18
Binocular & stereoscopic vision
the ability to perceive depth and three-dimensional information from visual inputs
18
color vision and night vision
color vision is primarily associated by cone cells in the eye, while night vision is for low-light situations and relies on rod cells
18
auditory bulla
a hollow, bony structure in the skull of mammals that encloses parts of the middle ear and inner ear
18
k-selection
a reproductive strategy where species have few offspring but invest a lot of parental care in each one
19
r-selection
High reproductive rate and low energy investment
19
visual predation hypothesis
a theory that explains the origins of primates by suggesting that they evolved from small mammals that ate insects
20
Geographic distribution of living primate taxa
primarily found in the tropical regions of africa, asia and south america
20
dental formula
of incisors, # of canines, # of pre-molars, # of molars in one quardrant
21
frontal bone
a large, flat bone that forms the fore-head and protects the brain, eyes, and nasal passages
21
mandibular symphasis
the vertical line where the right and left halves of the mandible fuse together
21
dental comb
a toothcomb which is a dental structure in some mammals that is made up of a group of front teeth that are arranged to help with grooming
21
rhinarium
Strepsirrhines have a wet rhinarium, while halporrhines have a dry nose
21
toilet claw
a specialized claw or nail used for grooming that is found on the foot of certain primates
22
prehensile tail
a tail that can grasp objects or support an animal's body weight
23
twin births
monozygotic but not identical; common in ceboidea/catrichidae
23
canine diastema
a gap between the canine tooth and teeth around it
23
CP3 complex
the arrangement of the upepr canine and lower third premolar teeth that allows the canine to be sharpened against the premolar
24
sectorial premolar
a lower premolar tooth with a unique shape that functions as a hone for the upper canine
24
grooming behavior
a catarine characteristic: to strengthen social bonds within their group, providing a sense of comfort and reassurance by physically cleaning each other
24
ischial callosities
a leathery butt skin
24
Bilophodont molar pattern
a dental configuration in which the molars have four cussps arranged in two parallel pairs, connected by two ridges or crests
24
estrus and estrus swelling
Refers to the phase in a female mammal's reproductive cycle when she is sexually receptive and ready to mate, essentially considered "in heat" while "estrus swelling" specifically describes the physical enlargement of the vulva that occurs during this period, often serving as a visual signal to males that the female is fertile
25
y-5 molar pattern: Hominoid characteristic
refers to a specific arrangement of cusps on a primate's molar teeth, where five cusps are positioned in a way that creates a "Y" shape when viewed from the top, essentially forming a Y-shaped groove pattern across the tooth surface
25
sexual dimorphism
a biological trait where the males and females of a species have different physical characteristics, even if they aren't directly related to reproduction
25
hominoid/quadruped anatomical contrasts
Hominoids: brachiators anatomy, short legs, long arms, IMI > 100, larger primates swing, no tail
cercopithecoidea: narrow, deep thorax, limited rotation of the shoulders, limited extension of forearms, limited flexibility in wrists, arms and legs similar in legnth, IMI = 100, tail
25
fist walking
orangutans do this
26
knuckle walking
chimps and gorilla's
27
diurnal
awake during the day
27
nocturnal
awake at night
27
crepuscular
awake during twilight, lit moon
27
body size-diet relationship
small body <500g: fast metabolism; eat proteins/fats/insects/sap
large body >500g: slower metabolism; eat mature leaves
28
locomotion-body size relationship
small body: run on top of branches, leap, IMI <= 100
large body: hang under brances, swing, IMI >100
28
intermembral index (IMI)
a ration that compares the length of a primate's forelimbs to the length of its hindlimbs (arm length/leg length) x 100
28
monogamy
a form of primate social organization; males and females mate; less sexual dimorphism ex: tarsiers, tarmarins, marmosets, owl monkey, hylobatids
28
single male (uni-male) groups
1 adult male, many females
28
multi-male/female group
many adult males and females
29
polyandrous group
rare in tamarins & marmosets (small ceboids)
29
solitary
single organisms defends a territory: lorisoids, organgutan
29
ecological niche
role and position a species has in its environment; HOW it meets its needs for food & shelter, survives, and reproduces
29
territory
INSIDE a home range; an area aggressively defended against intrustion, especially intrusion by con-specifics
30
home range
total area used by an organism or a social group of organisms; all the area they explore
30
primate socio-ecology
behavior within environment social organization: means by which organisms adjusted to their environments; relationship between environment and social behaviors
31
diversity of primate social organization and ecological correlates
Variability of resoruces: resources concentrated in clusters but clusters are widely dispered
Predation pressure: single male groups: low predation pressure
31
dominance hierarchies
hierarchy of ranked statuses sustained by HOSTILE BEHAVIOR
from high to low, what keeps this going is hostile actions
threat, but rarely physical violence
there is FEMALE dominance as well
31
grooming
a "currency" of what they are interested in
grooming another individual to establish an alliance at the moment or for some future event
32
field studies of chimpanzees
tool making (make modifications as well as use tools) to fish for termites
32
tool use and manufacture
chimpanzees don't just use tools (such as spears) but they also modify them for convenience (termite fishing)
32
hunting
they hunt antelopes; male hunt and females direct the hunting (chimpanzees)
32
protoculture/culture
the passing of behaviors from one generation to another among non-human primates; we think only we have culture but other do too; these are SHARED meanings, not genetic-based
32
forms of primate locomotion: vertical clining & leaping
long legs, imi < 100 EG: tarsier
32
forms of primate locomotion: quadrupedalism
Arms and legs are of same length, IMI = 100; Arboreal quad --> squirrel monkey; terrestrial quad --> baboon
32
forms of primate locomotion: suspensory
hang beneath brances; brachiation: long arms, IMI > 100 EG: gibbon, great apes
Cumbersome, use of all hands and feet
EG: orangutan, slow loris
32
forms of primate locomotion: Bipedalism
Long legs, IMI < 100, humans (IMI between 80-90)
33
Chimpanzee & our place in nature/early scientific accounts of apes
chimp is a link between man and nature; are there differences between ourselves because of differences in our bio-genetic make-up? (eg: doing better in school, making more money)
-compare a strip of DNA to see a difference = 2 different creatures
-humans and chimps have the least number of differences
33
what does genetic similarity mean?
when you share many of the same protein order in DNA
-DNA can be NO MORE than 75% different yet it doesn't predict any genetic similarity
33
problems in mapping genetic/biological difference to behavioral difference
IMPORTANT: no necessary relationship
-different behavior DOES NOT MEAN different biology/genetics! humans have different behaviors
34
science: accuracy vs. authority
-accuracy: science AIMS for accuracy, to build models of mechanisms and relationships
-authority: science HAS authority, a privileged position and special claims to validity
34
scientism
uncritical acceptance; there is a big problem: they claim but are not always accurate/correct
-unchallenged; uncritical faith in scientists
35
sociocultural embeddedness of science
problem for behavior genetics; naturalizing the social world
35
responsibilities of science
need to ask ourselves:
1. what do scientific ideas do?
2. are scientific ideas supported, accurate?
3. are we engaging in scientism?
4. need to research "subjects" (Human Genome Diversity Project)
35
racism, elitism, eugenics
-race/racism: we are all a subset of Africa and problems of race are social and not biological; how useful is race?
-elitism: one group is better at something than others
-eugenics in the early 20th century: breeding programs for people, which can regulate reproduction --> increase good traits and remove bad traits
36
paraphyletic Africans
they are an ancestral, diverse group
Asians & Europeans come from Africans
37
Scientism in eugenics
eugenics in public policy forced sterilzation genocide
US immigration policy
elimation of weak or unfit people
38
Human Genome Diversity Project
effort to establish a genetic research museum of the human species; cover genetic diversity in human species for study be geneticists; use cell lines derived from various peoples of the world genetic diversity is a continuum with no clear breaks delineating racial groups
38
paleospecies & biological species
Paleospecies: species identified from FOSSIL remains based on their physical similarities/differences relative to other species/morphology
Biological species: species able to reproduce effective
38
lumpers & splitters
lumpers: assign fossils to pre-existing species categories
splitters: call any new fossil that is somewhat different a new spcies
38
molecular evolution
infer phylogenetic relationships using ANATOMICAL SIMILARITIES
-comparative anatomy & fossil records
-use homologous shared-derived traits
38
molecular data
use similarities in molecular structure of proteins or DNA
38
nucleotide sequencing
compare same strip of DNA and pull out 2 different creatures
39
rooted tree topology, how it works?
a tree diagram showing evolutionary relationships
how it works:
-which has the fewest nucleotide differences? start from present and work backwards in time (from right to left)
different from fossils
39
molecular clock
human-chimpanzee divergence 6-7 mya;
-effort to put on a time scale and say WHEN the branching events occurred
40
fossils & fossilization
remains get covered; inorganic material replaces organic; preserved in a burial, no oxygen environment, petrified, minerals in bones replaced with rock (1/1000 species fossilize)
40
Taphonomy
study of what happens to plants/animals after death; fossilization
40
Relative dating methos: stratigraphy
layers or stratum of earth/order of rock layers that show sequence of events (relative, but does not tell you exactly when)
40
Absolute (chronometric) dating methods
how much time had passed since event
41
isotopic dating: half lives
using rates of decay to estimate time, half-lives,
41
potassium-argon dating: isotopes, material for analysis, half-life and temporal limits to use
isotopes: 40K sold to 40Ar gas
half life: 1.3 billion years
material for analysis: nonlinear, predictive pattern, volcanic activity, previously molten rock
temporal range: older than 200kBC
41
Creataceous Period of Mesozoic Era: Ends with extinction of the dinosaurs
Cretaceous-teritary extinctions
41
Cenozoic Era: Paleocene Epoch
primate-like animals; lack full suite of primate traits, prehensile hands and feet but no binocular/steroscopic vision
42
Cenozoic Era: Eocene Epoch
primate derived traits, post-orbital bar, forward facil eyes, fused auditory bulla, prehensile hands/feet
42
Oligocene Epoch
first anthropoids (simiiformes, cata, platy)
full PO closure
42
Miocene Epoch
Hominoids/Hominds/Cercopithecoids
no tail
wide diversity of apes
42
Proconsul
under miocene, a genus name of a hominid
42
Sivapithecus
under miocene, ancestor of orangutan; similar face and ears
42
Late Miocene & Pliocene Epoch
bipedalism
hominins: sahelanthropus, orrorin, ardipithecus, australopithecus, & early homo
42
Pleistocene Epoch: Homo & Australopithecus
Homo & Australopithecus
42
Holocene Epoch
Homo
42
Early Primates: Aegyptopithecus
full PO closure (catarrhine)
42
Footprints at Leotoli (E. Africa)
in E. Africa over 3.7 mya
evidence of bipedalism
42
Early Pliocene Hominins
E. and C. Africa
sahelanthropus tchadensis
australopithecus afarensis
adrdipithecus ramidus
ardipithecus anamensis
ardipithecus africanus
ardipithecus kadaba
42
Anatomy of Bipedalism
-Foramen Magnum (big hole in the base of cranium) so the spinal cord can run thru
-in quadrupeds: the hole is located in the back of the cranium
-bipeds: centered underneath the cranium for upright posture
42
Theories of Evolution of Bipedalism
-broader vision over Savannah
-better heat control, air flow, hot on the ground/all fours
-efficient form of locomotion; can travel long distance
-freeing up hands for tool use
-feeding behavior
-provisioning
42
Adaptive radiation of hominins in pliocene
earliest hominins: puzzles with new data
42
Australopithecus aethiopicus
robust & east africa
42
australaopithecus africanus
gracile
42
australopithecus robustus
robust
42
australopithecus boisei
robust & east africa
42
australopithecus garhi
gracile & east africa
42
Homo naledi
gracile
42
Buttressed mandible
the structure of the lower jaw (mandible) where specific bony ridges, known as buttresses, act as supporting pillars to withstand the forces of chewing, providing stability and strength to the facial skeleton
42
flaring zygomatic arch
a prominent, wide, and outwardly projecting cheekbone, where the bony structure of the zygomatic arch extends significantly outwards from the skull, creating a more pronounced "high cheekbone" appearance
42
sagital crest
a bony ridge that runs along the middle of the top of the skull in many mammals and reptiles
42
Posterior dentition (cheek teeth) vs anterior dentition
"Posterior dentition" refers to the teeth located at the back of the mouth, including premolars and molars, while "anterior dentition" refers to the teeth at the front of the mouth, including incisors and canines
43
molarization of premolars
premolars that have a similar root structure to molars, or look like molars
44
phylogenies for early hominins
ardipithecus ramidus
44
oldowan tool tradition
the earliest known stone tool industry, dating back to around 2.5 million years ago
45
hunting v. scavenging in Early hominins
Early hominins likely engaged in both hunting and scavenging, and the debate over which activity was more prevalent has shifted over time
46
Homo erectus: Temporal distribution, geographical distribution, traits, phylogenetic status
Lived during the pleistocene epoch, emerged around 1.9mya-110,000 years ago; africa, asia, and psosibly europe; modern human proportions, cc 1000; presumptive common ancestor for homo sapeinces homo erecturs may actually consist of multiple species
47
Features of Cranium and Face: Contrasts with modern homo sapiens
Compared to modern Homo sapiens, earlier hominid craniums and faces typically exhibited larger brow ridges, more pronounced facial prognathism (protruding face), a lower and more sloping forehead, a larger jaw with bigger teeth, a wider nasal cavity, and a more prominent occipital bun at the back of the skull, signifying a less globular braincase and a different muscle attachment pattern; in contrast, modern humans have a high, vertical forehead, a retracted face with smaller facial features, a smaller jaw with smaller teeth, and a more rounded, globular skull with a reduced occipital bun.
48
sagital keel
A sagittal keel is a thickening of the skull's frontal and/or parietal bones that occurs along the skull's midline. It's also known as a sagittal torus.
49
Supra-orbital torus
a bony ridge that extends above the eye sockets of some primates and other animals
50
Achulean tool tradition & Culture
a period in the Stone Age when Homo erectus and H. heidelbergensis created stone tools that were used for hunting, food preparation, digging, and warfare
50
Nuchal torus
a thickened ridge of bone located at the back of the skull, specifically in the nuchal (neck) region, where neck muscles attach
51
Archaic Homo sapiens
a group of early humans that lived during the Middle Pleistocene and had a mix of modern and primitive features
52
homo heidelbergensis
It was the first early human species to live in colder climates; their short, wide bodies were likely an adaptation to conserving heat
53
EG: Kabwe (Broken Hill Zambia)
When Kabwe (also known as Broken Hill) was sent to Arthur Smith Woodward, Woodward assigned the specimen to a new species: Homo rhodesiensis. Today, most scientists assign Kabwe to Homo heidelbergensis.
54
Neandertals
Neanderthals were a group of humans that lived in Western Eurasia between 300,000 and 30,000 years ago
55
denisovans
The Denisovans or Denisova hominins are an extinct species or subspecies of archaic human that ranged across Asia during the Lower and Middle Paleolithic
55
neadertals & archaic homo sapiens: contrast traits with modern H. sapiens, temporal distribution, geographical distribution
Neanderthals and archaic Homo sapiens had more robust body builds, prominent brow ridges, larger noses, and a more receding chin, while geographically they were primarily found in Europe and parts of Asia
56
occipital bun
a prominent bulge or projection on the back of the skull, specifically at the occipital bone
57
chin (mental eminence)
the base of which is depressed in the center but raised on either side to form the mental tubercle
58
Brow Ridges (supra-orbital torus) in neadertals
A Neanderthal's "brow ridge," also known as the "supraorbital torus," is a prominent bony ridge located above their eye sockets, considered one of their most distinctive features, appearing as a heavy and continuous ridge across the forehead
59
midfacial projection
The midface includes such facial features as the nose, cheek, and upper lip, and posteriorly it extends to the anterior skull base.
60
neandertal post-cranial skeleton: contrasts with modern homo sapiens
Compared to modern Homo sapiens, a Neanderthal post-cranial skeleton is generally more robust, with thicker bones, broader limbs, and a stockier build + a notable difference in cranial vault (and by inference brain) shape with a receding frontal bone and distinctive occipital bun
60
cranial shape and Relative size in different fossil types Homo as well as ourselves
typically around 1500 cc while modern day humans are 1350cc
61
Levallois (prepared core) tool technology
a stone tool-making technique that involves preparing a core to produce falkes, blades, and triangular points
62
Mousterian tool tradition & culture
carefully fashioned tools with continuous cutting edges, such as the Levallois point, used for specific purposes like woodworking and spear-making
63
chatelperronian tradition & culture
refers to a distinct archaeological culture from the Upper Paleolithic period in Europe, characterized by a unique style of stone tool making, including distinctive curved backed knives, and often associated with the last Neanderthal populations in the region
64
Paleolithic: lower (oldowan & archeulean); middle (Mousterian); upper (chatelperronian & upper paleolithic cultural traiditons of anatomically modern H. sapiens)
the "Lower Paleolithic" is characterized by the Oldowan and Acheulean tool industries, the "Middle Paleolithic" is primarily associated with the Mousterian tradition, and the "Upper Paleolithic" includes the Châtelperronian and other cultural traditions of anatomically modern Homo sapiens, signifying a significant advancement in toolmaking and cultural complexity across these stages.
65
Genetic Diversity in Human Populations in Different Reigons of the world
The greatest genetic diversity among human populations is found in Africa specifically in East Africa
66
Displacement Model (Replacement model): mitochondrial DNA
describes the primary mechanism by which mtDNA replicates, where one strand is syntehsized continuously, displacing the parental strand as it progresses, leading to asymmetric replication with distinct origins for the leading and lagging strands
67
Multiregional evolution model (regional continuity model)
argues that our earliest hominid ancestors (specifically Homo erectus) evolved in Africa and then radiated out into the world
68
primary african origin model
Homo sapiens evolved in africa before migrating across the world
69
biological and other changes accompanyign shift to agriculture
mortality risk, population growth, adult body size, and physical markers of health
