Final Flashcards
Lecture 11 - Social Perception & Social Influence
What is the primacy effect in social perception?
The primacy effect indicates that the first information we learn about someone is more memorable and significantly shapes our perceptions of them, often overshadowing later information. This can influence judgments and interactions in social contexts.
Lecture 11 - Social Perception & Social Influence
How do self-fulfilling prophecies influence behavior?
Self-fulfilling prophecies influence behavior by causing individuals to act in ways that confirm others’ expectations. For example, if a teacher believes a student is not capable, the student may perform poorly, thus reinforcing the teacher’s belief.
Lecture 11 - Social Perception & Social Influence
What are stereotypes and how can they be both beneficial and problematic?
Stereotypes are over-generalized beliefs about groups of people. They can simplify social interactions and provide quick judgments, but they often lead to prejudice and discrimination, which can harm individuals and perpetuate social inequalities.
Lecture 11 - Social Perception & Social Influence
What is the bystander effect and how does it relate to pluralistic ignorance?
The bystander effect occurs when individuals in a group fail to help someone in need, often due to the assumption that others will take action. This relates to pluralistic ignorance, where people privately disagree with inaction but conform to the perceived group norm.
Lecture 11 - Social Perception & Social Influence
What is normative social influence?
This drives individuals to align with the majority to gain acceptance and avoid conflict, even when they hold strong personal beliefs.
Lecture 11 - Social Perception & Social Influence
What factors contribute to conformity in social situations?
Ambiguity and social pressure
Lecture 11 - Social Perception & Social Influence
What distinguishes prejudice from discrimination?
Prejudice is an unjustified attitude, while discrimination is unfair treatment.
Lecture 11 - Social Perception & Social Influence
What is the fundamental attribution error?
Our tendency to put greater weight on internal attributions when explaining the behaviors of others
Lecture 11 - Social Perception & Social Influence
What is the actor-observer effect in attributions?
The tendency to attribute others’ actions to internal factors while attributing one’s own actions to external factors
Lecture 8 - Intelligence + Problem Solving
What does the Flynn effect suggest about intelligence over time?
There has been a worldwide increase in intelligence test performance
Lecture 8 - Intelligence + Problem Solving
How can environmental factors impact intelligence according to recent studies?
Environmental factors significantly impact intelligence
Recent studies have led us to conclude that environments, especially ones that are significantly different, can also play a role in intelligence
Lecture 7 - Memory & Memory Issues
What are the three steps involved in displaying memory?
Encoding, Storage, Retrieval
Lecture 7 - Memory & Memory Issues
What was the historical concern regarding the scientific study of memory?
○ Worries about being able to control for individual experience-linked differences
○ Questions about how to explore the processes involved
○ Questions about the accuracy of memories reported
Lecture 7 - Memory & Memory Issues
What method did Ebbinghaus use to control for individual differences in his memory studies?
He used himself as the sole participant
Lecture 7 - Memory & Memory Issues
What is the difference between encoding, storage, and retrieval in memory processes?
○ Encoding – the process of converting information into a form that will allow us to retrieve that information later
○ Storage – the process of retaining critical information for later use
○ Retrieval – the process of accessing the stored information that we have encoded to use it in a situation
Lecture 8 - Intelligence + Problem Solving
What are algorithms and how do they differ from heuristics in problem-solving?
Algorithms are systematic procedures; heuristics are shortcuts.
Lecture 8 - Intelligence + Problem Solving
What is confirmation bias and how does it influence our thinking?
Tendency to accept a hypothesis and then look for evidence to support it instead of considering other possibilities or disconfirming information.
Lecture 7 - Memory & Memory Issues
What is the reconstruction effect in memory recall?
Including inaccurate information to fill memory gaps
Lecture 7 - Memory & Memory Issues
What is the primacy effect in memory recall?
The ability to remember information at the beginning more easily
Lecture 7 - Memory & Memory Issues
Who was Hermann Ebbinghaus and what did he aim to prove about memory?
Sought to prove that we could examine the concept of memory scientifically
In the end it showed us that we could scientifically study the topic of memory, as well as it also gave us information on memory capacity and the malleability of our minds
Lecture 8 - Intelligence + Problem Solving
What is the concept of “satisficing” in decision-making strategies?
In search of the first satisfactory choice, may regret choice if presented with more information
Lecture 7 - Memory & Memory Issues
What is the capacity of short-term memory according to Ebbinghaus’s findings?
7 ± 2 items
Lecture 7 - Memory & Memory Issues
How does proactive interference affect memory retention?
It reduces memory retention of new information due to old information
Lecture 9 - Developmental Concepts + Jean Piaget
What is developmental psychology?
the scientific study of how and why the mind and related systems change throughout the lifespan
Lecture 9 - Developmental Concepts + Jean Piaget
What are the main strategies used by early developmental psychologists?
● Tracking/Predicting Typical Development from Conception to Death
● Understanding the Triggers and Causes of Typical Development
● Examining Non-Traditional Development To Understand Why it Occurred and How It Impacts the Individual
Lecture 9 - Developmental Concepts + Jean Piaget
How is heritability defined in the context of psychological concepts?
an estimate of the variance within a psychological concept that is due to genetics
Lecture 9 - Developmental Concepts + Jean Piaget
Who is considered the leader in cognitive development research?
Jean Piaget
Lecture 9 - Developmental Concepts + Jean Piaget
What are schemas according to Piaget’s theory?
a concept or mental framework that organizes and interprets information in the world
Lecture 9 - Developmental Concepts + Jean Piaget
What concept did Jean Piaget develop regarding children’s adaptation to their environment?
■ Assimilation – interpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s existing schema
■ Accommodation – adapting one’s current schemas to incorporate new information
Lecture 9 - Developmental Concepts + Jean Piaget
What characterizes the sensorimotor stage (birth-2 years old) of cognitive development?
This stage is primarily focused on learning different outcomes through the senses and then learning the ways to increase the frequency of desirable outcomes
Lecture 9 - Developmental Concepts + Jean Piaget
What is the difference between assimilation and accommodation in Piaget’s theory?
■ Assimilation – interpreting one’s new experience
■ Accommodation – adapting one’s current schemas to incorporate new information
Lecture 9 - Developmental Concepts + Jean Piaget
What are the four proposed stages of cognitive development by Piaget?
Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete, Formal
Lecture 10 - Other Developmental Theories + Interpersonal Relationships
What are Erik Erikson’s eight stages of human development focused on?
The psychosocial conflicts faced at each life stage.
Lecture 9 - Developmental Concepts + Jean Piaget
What is egocentrism, and how is it demonstrated in children during the preoperational stage (2-7 years old)?
Piaget’s classic experiment on egocentrism involved showing children a three-dimensional model of a mountain and asking them to describe what a doll that is looking at the mountain from a different angle might see.Children tend to choose a picture that represents their own, rather than the doll’s view.
Lecture 9 - Developmental Concepts + Jean Piaget
What abilities do children develop during the concrete operational stage (7-11 years old)?
○ Metacognition – the ability to think about your thinking
○ Able to do operations – mentally reverse actions that were first done physically
○ Analogies
Lecture 10 - Other Developmental Theories + Interpersonal Relationships
What is adolescent egocentrism as described by David Elkind?
A heightened sense of self-consciousness in adolescents
Lecture 10 - Other Developmental Theories + Interpersonal Relationships
What is the significance of attachment in Bowlby’s attachment system?
Attachment fosters security and emotional development in children.
Lecture 10 - Other Developmental Theories + Interpersonal Relationships
What are the different attachment patterns identified by Mary Ainsworth in her Strange Situation study?
Secure, insecure-ambivalent, insecure-avoidant, disorganized
Lecture 3 - Studying the Brain + Sensation & the Eye
What is the primary focus of electrophysiology measures in studying the nervous system?
Assessing electrical activity in the nervous system
○ Less invasive
○ Allows us to get larger samples of individuals
○ Allows us to more accurately measure the location of the activity (spatial resolution - measured in inches)
○ Allows us to detect when the brain is activated (temporal resolution - measures in milliseconds)
Which imaging technique uses radioactive isotopes to determine blood pooling?
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
What are rods primarily adapted for in vision?
Vision in dim light and motion detection
Action potentials move along the ____ of a neuron.
Axon
Aaron wants to conduct a study involving a psychological phenomenon that requires very fast temporal resolution. What is best suited for Aaron?
An electroencephalogram (EEG)
Which of the following is a reason why babies should be given skin-to-skin contact with their mother’s bare chest after birth?
- It stimulates bonding with the mother
- It stimulates the mother to generate important antibodies for the baby
- It stimulates the release of oxytocin in the mother and baby
After being yelled at by her parents each time she came home late, Ashley no longer comes home late. Her parent’s yelling exemplified…
Positive punishment
The highest density of nociceptors can be found in which layer or layers of the skin?
Epidermis
Jorge consumes a substance that inhibits the reuptake of dopamine in his brain. Jorge likely consumed a drug from which class?
Stimulants
While being trained to sit, a dog is given a treat only sometimes after successfully sitting on command. Which kind of reinforcement schedule does this represent?
Variable ratio
The brain has cannabinoid receptors…
In many areas of the brain
Ashley was involved in a car accident and can no longer move her right hand. Which of the following did Ashley likely damage?
A part of the central nervous system
What is a case study?
A study based on one individual or a small group of individuals
Which group of psychologists are right when it comes to human vision?
Both Constructivist and Ecological psychologists
The terminal buttons of a neuron…
Store and release neurotransmitters
Gerald wants to investigate whether the mind has basic elements and structures. Which of the following describes the area of research that Gerald wants to investigate?
Structuralism
Early psychology researchers had participants taste various fruits and asked them to look inward and describe their thoughts, emotions, judgments, and perceptions while eating the fruit. What psychological process were participants asked to do?
Introspect
Which form of learning BEST accounts for people learning through trial and error?
Operant conditioning
What question might a functionalist psychologist MOST LIKELY ask?
What is the purpose of our emotions?
What was the PRIMARY research question investigated by Pedersen & Wheeler (1983)?
Does the type of home one lives in influence one’s susceptibility to the Muller-Lyer illusion?
What best describes the Retinex Theory of color vision?
It is a constructivist approach theory
What is the brain’s primary inhibitory neurotransmitter?
GABA
What turns light into electrical signals?
Retina
What do the Muller-Lyer Illusion, Ponso Illusion, and the Ames Room Illusion suggest about vision?
Our brain actively constructs our perception of the world
Which types of light can humans generally NOT see?
Gamma rays
X-rays
Infrared rays
Research using the Muller-Lyer Illusion suggests that…
The way we perceive stimuli can be learned
Angel recently broke his leg and was prescribed a painkiller for his pain. The painkiller is influencing which neurotransmitter to reduce his pain?
Endorphins
What is a limitation of Pedersen & Wheeler’s (1983) study?
The sample size was very small
Compared to the other classes of drugs we learned about, what is a unique feature of hallucinogens?
They act as both an agonist and antagonist
Julie has been playing the piano for most of her life. Which of the following brain areas is likely to have allocated more area to her hands and fingers?
Primary motor cortex
The release of a specific neurotransmitter increases the likelihood that a connecting neuron will release its own neurotransmitters. This means that the neurotransmitter that was initially released is…
An excitatory neurotransmitter
Amy wakes up in the middle of the night and walks through her dimly lit house. What are MOST helpful in allowing Amy to see?
Rods
Ivan Pavlov was primarily interested in…
Classical conditioning
Vision deficiencies and color blindness provide support for which theory?
Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision
Angela believes that most of what we do is a direct consequence of stimuli in the environment. Angelia is likely a…
Behaviorist
Which theory can account for the afterimage effect?
Opponent Process Theory of Color Vision
What were competing theories concerning the mind-body problem?
Dualism and monism
Joseph perceives the room is quickly getting warmer after turning the heater on. What enables Joseph to perceive this increase in temperature?
The exteroceptive part of the somatosensory system
What is something that classical conditioning cannot explain?
How we know what to do and not to do in situations we’ve never encountered
After a series of head traumas to the same area, Julie has difficulty processing auditory information. Julie likely damaged which part of her brain?
Temporal lobe
What was an implication of the Baby Albert studies?
Classical conditioning could account for the development of phobias
Although Jessica severely burned her hand, she, interestingly, did not feel anything while it happened. Which of the following areas of the brain is likely damaged?
Primary somatosensory cortex
For some reason, Manuel gets anxiety every time he hears the air conditioner in his room turn on. The sound of his air conditioner turning on was likely initially a ____ but later became a ____.
Neutral stimulus / conditioned stimulus
James can easily recall the day he received his acceptance letter from Ohio university. This is an example of what kind of memory?
Episodic
Craig believes that all college athletes are rude and egotistical. Because Aaron is a college athlete, Craigs unfairly treats Aaron. Craigs is exhibiting…
Discrimination
As part of their interview process, a company requires candidates to correctly solve a problem that has only one objectively correct answer. To solve this problem, candidates should…
Use an algorithm
Why are symmetrical faces presumed to be more attractive?
They suggest good reproductive genes
What reflects a person’s mental framework for organizing and interpreting information in the world?
A schema
The fact that it isn’t clear if Milgram’s (1963) study reflects normal, everyday authority/obedience situations is an example of what?
A limitation of the study
According to Robert Sternberg’s triangular theory of love, which of the following would best reflects the saying “love at first sight”?
Passion
To figure out the best car to buy, Juan goes through extensive efforts to analyze and understand the mechanical specifications of over 20 cars. What best describes Juan in this situation?
He is a maximizer
According to Jean Piaget, children cannot…
advance through his proposed cognitive stages faster than their age indicates
Jean Piaget’s theory was focused on…
The cognitive development of children
A researcher conducted several studies to empirically support his hypothesis, but the data in each of his studies do not support his hypothesis. The researcher concludes that the participants in his studies were less than ideal. What kind of cognitive error is the researcher making?
Confirmation bias
Lisa initially dislikes her coworker. However, after months of working with them, Lisa has begun to like and appreciate her coworker. Lisa now liking the coworker is an example of…
The mere exposure effect
Josh claims that he is smart every time he does well on an exam, but he claims that the test was writing poorly every time he doesn’t do well on an exam. Josh is exhibiting what psychological phenomena?
Self-serving bias
Jorge concludes he is smart after getting an A on his final paper. Jorge has just made…
An internal attribution
Although Xavier believes that stealing is wrong, he decides to help his group of friends steal because everyone has agreed to do it. Xavier deciding to help his friends steal is an example of what?
Conformity
What is true with respect to Jean Piaget’s and Erik Erikson’s theories of development?
Only Erikson’s theory focused on the development of adults
Over half of the participants in Milgram’s (1963) study…
Shocked the learner/victim until the end of the experiment
Assuming that all tall people play basketball is an example of what kind of cognitive error?
Representative heuristic
Who was a vocal critic of Jean Piaget?
Lev Vygotsky
Gregory is actively exploring his identity but has not yet made a decision about his identity. According to James Marcia, which of the following reflects Gregory’s identity status?
Identity moratorium
What is one conclusion that can be drawn from the studies conducted by Hermann Ebbinghaus’s memory studies?
Various factors can influence peoples’ ability to acquire and forget information
The fact that identical twins have very similar, though not identical, levels of intelligence supports the idea that intelligence …
Is largely influenced by biology/genetics
Solomon Asch’s line study suggested that…
Groups of people can have a very strong influence over what we do
One of the first psychologists to scientifically explore intelligence was…
Alfred Binet
If we ignore various methodological issues in the research by Thomas Bouchard, his research on identical twins suggests that…
Who we become is almost entirely based on genetics/nature
During Mary Ainsworth’s “Stage Situation” paradigm, a child gets extremely upset when their caregiver leaves the room. When the caregiver returns, the child clings to them and has trouble calming down. Which of the following attachment patterns did this child exhibit?
Anxious/resistant
According to John Bowlby, what IS NOT a function of an infants predisposed attachment system?
Crying
After being asked to memorize a list of bird species, Amy is asked to recall them from memory without being given any kinds of cues or hints. What kind of memory test was Amy given?
Free recall test
Because Ben believes that Ashley is more intelligent than Amanda, Ben devotes most of his attention and efforts towards helping Ashley study for an upcoming exam. While Ashley gets an A on the exam, Amanda gets an F. Ben then concludes that he was right in thinking that Amanda is not intelligent. Ben just displayed an example of what?
A self-fulfilling prophecy
A person decides not to help an unhoused person because everyone else is ignoring them. According to Lawrence Kohlberg, which level of morality is this person in?
Conventional
People often use the acronym OCEAN to remember the five facets of personality. OCEAN is a type of…
Mnemonic device
Jessica learned to tie her shoes in a way that she used for most of her life. However, she recently was shown a better way to tie her shoes. Despite trying hard to learn and remember this new way of tying shoes, she has difficulty remembering how to use the new method. What can best explain Jessica’s difficulty learning this new method of tying shoes?
Proactive interference
A child has never encountered a mean person before. According to Jean Piaget, the child’s first experience with a mean person would put them into a state of…
Disequilibrium
Gerald has read a long list of words but can only remember the first few words that were on the list. Gerald only being able to remember the first few words is an example of what?
The primacy effect
Liliana needs to come up with an approximate answer to a problem very quickly. Liliana should…
Use a heuristic
Craig believes that all college athletes are rude and egotistical. Because Aaron is a college athlete, Craigs has a negative attitude towards Aaron. Craigs is exhibiting…
Prejudice
The fact that the Big-5 theory of personality has generally replicated and been found in many different cultures implies that measurement of the Big-5 is…
Reliable and valid
Gerald has pervasively had anxiety for the past 3 months. If Gerald goes to a psychiatrist who uses the DSM-5 to make a diagnosis, the psychiatrist is likely to…
Not diagnose Gerald with anything at that time
What is implied if emotions are “constructed”?
Emotions are not basic and innate
What is true about existing personality tests and measures?
Tests can be either objective or projective
Which field (or fields) of psychology did Sigmund Freud have a significant impact on?
Personality and Clinical Psychology
Phillip used to get to a desired state after drinking a couple beers. Phillip now needs to drink at least six beers to get to the same state. What has Phillip developed?
An alcohol tolerance
After a bad car accident, Joe has experienced heart palpitations, but not shortness of breath, each time he gets into a car. These symptoms have been occurring for two months. Joe seeks help but is not diagnosed with panic disorder. What is a reason why Joe was not diagnosed with panic disorder?
The source of Joe’s panic attacks are clear
According to Sigmund Freud, which of the following was the largest “force” within an individual?
id
Just as Ashley begins to feel sad, she tries to change the way she is thinking about the situation to change how she feels. Ashley has just done what?
Cognitively reappraised the situation
A person expects to succeed at a task because they were successful in the past
This is consistent with what?
the social cognitive model of personality
Observational learning can play an important role in developing what?
a phobia
Jamie tends to experience depression like symptoms every winter, but they tend to go away during spring. Which of the following disorders is Jamie likely to be diagnosed with?
Seasonal affective disorder
According to Abraham Maslow, love and belonging needs will only be priority needs if which needs are satisfied?
Physiological and safety needs
The idea that mental health issues and disorders were demonic or spiritual in nature is consistent with which view/theory?
Prehistoric and Egyptian views
Which neurotransmitter (or neurotransmitters) is (are) especially involved in addiction?
dopamine
According to Duhigg’s habit research, cues can…
Elicit cravings for a substance
Acetaldehyde is an enzyme that has implications for developing an addiction to what?
Alcohol
If someone wanted to reduce how much they are experiencing positive emotions, they should…
Use cognitive reappraisal
Which psychologist believed that our future oriented outlook and goals help shape our personality?
Carl Jung
What is a major criticism of Sigmund Freud’s ideas and theories?
They were generally not empirically derived
Jessica drinks up to 10 cups of coffee each day and sometimes cannot control her impulses to drink more. If each of the following are true, why might Jessica not be diagnosed with an addiction based on the DMS-5?
Jessica’s coffee drinking does not cause troubles in life
Core affect is central to which emotion theory or theories?
Psychological construction
A psychiatrist asks their client several questions to gain a better understanding of the client’s unconscious thoughts and memories to bring them into conscious awareness and address them. The psychiatrist is using which mental health approach?
Psychoanalysis
A psychiatrist believes that clients are the only ones who can identify what they need to realize their full potential. The psychiatrist is using which mental health approach?
Humanistic approach
What theory or theories involving emotions does appraisal play a role?
- Biological
- Psychological construction
- Emotion regulation theories (e.g., process model of emotion regulation)
If kind, patient, generous, and respectful entirely describes a person, what does the combination of these descriptors reflect?
The person’s personality
Jorge experiences sadness after encountering a particular stimulus. What best explains why Jorge experienced sadness?
Jorge appraised the stimulus in a way that evoked sadness
Liking is to ____ as wanting is to ____.
Pleasure/craving
What is a drawback of using medication to treat mental illnesses?
Underlying psychological issues are not specifically addressed
Contemporary views of mental illness consider the interaction of what?
Biological, sociocultural, and psychological factors
The fact that lobotomies were once used to address mental health issues implies that it was believed that mental health was primarily caused by what?
Biological factors
What was central to most of Sigmund Freud’s ideas and theories?
- Conflicting forces within the individual
- Unconscious forces
- Traumas
Compared to other mood disorders we learned about, bipolar disorder is the only one that…
- Can involve mild or severe depressive symptoms
- Involves the experience of positive emotions
- Has different “types”
