Final Flashcards
public speaking definition
speech in, by, and for the public
public definition
the presence of something before or in the hands of the community, what we might think of as the people
public discourse definition
the ongoing, simultaneous conversations community members have with each other about how to maintain and remake the world
aspects of public speaking
-form of communication
-always goal oriented
-personal, professional, and public dimensions
-is cultural
-a form of free expression
-an ethical undertaking
communication definition
the exchange of symbols between people in an effort to understand or influence each other’s perception of the world
standard model of communication
a holistic attempt to account for the major attributes that are at work in most communication interactions
parts of the standard model of communication
Sender: person who initiates communication
Message: a form of symbolic representation that contains information
Channels: the diverse forms in which media messages travel
Receiver: person for which the sender prepares a message and from whom the sender expects a response
SMoC encoding
the work that a sender does to a message to put it into a format appropriate for communication in a particular situation
SMoC decoding
the work the receiver does to translate the speaker’s encoding into a format they can interpret and understand
SMoC feedback
the verbal and non-verbal signals a receiver provides a sender in the course of communicating
SMoC noise
anything that interferes with the successful transmission of a message
what are the 6 basic forms of communication
intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, organizational, mass, public
Intrapersonal communication
communication that takes place within a person’s own mind, primarily through thinking and internal dialogue
Interpersonal communication
communication that takes place between two to three people and typically concerns the creation, maintenance, or disillusion of personal relationship
Group communication
communication that takes place among a small group of people, particularly teams, and is often focused on the completion of a task
Organizational communication
communication that takes place within and between large institutions and their members
mass communication
communication that takes place through media of many kinds, including television, film, and social or print media, and is transmitted to large audiences
Public communication
communication that takes place between a speaker and an audience with the aim of engaging that audience on a topic of shared concern about the public interest
(always done in a public setting)
minor goals definition
small, targeted tasks that the speaker hopes to achieve over the course of a speech in order to improve its effectiveness
primary goals definition
the single, focused, overarching achievement the speaker hopes to attain with her audience by the end of the speech in order to be successful
What is the primary goal of all speeches
to persuade
What are the four primary goals of our speeches
to persuade the audience
- to learn important information about a new topic
- to consider perspectives other than their own
- to adopt a solution to a public problem advocated for by the speaker
- to value the life and experiences of another person
thesis statement
single, declarative sentence in which the speaker makes the central, overarching argument of their entire speech
oral traditions
earliest practices of speechmaking and storytelling by which societies shared and passed on histories, common sense, and culture
dominant paradigm of public speaking
the belied that effective public speaking should only be formal, be rational, emphasize Western values, and be practiced almost exclusively by white men
multicultural paradigm of public speaking
acknowledges that there are many speaking traditions and ways in which those traditions can be integrated or used independently in order to do effective and confident public speaking
cultures definition
socially created practices and values for understanding the world
free expression
an exercise of the human right to share ideas and opinions with others without interference from governments or other forms of authority
what are the free speech exceptions
incitement, defamation (slander and libel)
incitement definition
speech that advocates the use of force in a lawless and immediate way
defamation definition
a knowingly false statement made in public that harms the reputation of another person or entity
slander
when defamation that occurs in speech
libel
defamation that occurs in print or visual media
hate speech
speech that offends, threatens, or insults groups, based on race, color, religion, national origin, sexual orientation, disability, or other traits
why is hate speech protected
the principle matters, who decides, minorities suffer the most
morals
the personal and consistent principle that individuals use to determine what is good and bad
ethics
socially defined expectation of good and bad behavior, which are almost always variable by context
what values should a speaker prioritize
accuracy, honesty, transparency, empathy, vulnerability, accountability, authenticity, consistency
demagogue
a speaker who appeals to popular prejudices rather than reason and argument
post-truth society
a world in which people are willing to believe only their own interpretation of the world, even when there are no facts to support that the world actually exists in that way
difference
the various ways in which people’s experiences in and understanding of the world are expressed in their sense of self and others
pluralistic society
a society constituted by many different kinds of people who believe many different kinds of things yet work in common cause and tolerance for the betterment of the community as a whole
political correctness
the belief that language and behaviors that offend marginalized communities in a given society should be curtailed and replaced with statements and acts that affirm these communities place in that society
safe spaces
locations, places, and sites in the world in which individuals and communities can take refuge from opinions, expectations, and assumptions other people make about them
brave spaces
sites in which we emphasize the need for courage rather than the illusion of safety in public discourse
mistakes in speaking across difference
generalizing our experience, bias, stereotyping, ethnocentrism, speaking for others, only seeing one side of a person, defensive speaking and listening, disengagement
strategies for speaking across difference
listen to criticism, admit mistakes, and grow, use inclusive language, speak for yourself and invite others to speak, take up less time and space, be open-minded, be self-reflective, ask questions but do your work first
public speaking anxiety (glossophobia)
a common form of nervousness people feel before, during, and/or after speaking before groups of people in a public setting
communication apprehension
a broad term for the many types of anxieties people have about communication in general
trait anxieties
produce anxiousness around general categories of human experience because of our distinct personalities or experiences
State anxiety
anxiety about communication that is linked to a particular situation, circumstance, or moment
strategies for managing speaking anxiety
-pick a topic you know and care about
-prepare in advance
-practice
-give yourself flexibility
-select date and time
-know speech requirements
-get to know audience
-visit speech site in advance
-be well rested
-introduce comfort items
-be realistic
dimensions of a speaking situation
the speaker
the audience
the occasion
the time
the environment
the immediacy
audience analysis
an assessment of members of the audience’s identities, interests, and beliefs that can help the speaker shape their message
demographic survey
a written document that asks the audience to provide the speaker with information about the audience’s race, class, gender identity, sexual orientation, or other similar information
informant survey
reaching out to the speech organizer and asking that person for their assessment of the likely audience makeup
visual survey
quickly judging based on what they can see what kinds of people are in the audience
hand survey
where the speaker asks the audience to raise their hand if they fall into a particular category or have had a particular experience
argument
a well-supported and well-reasoned assertation about the world as it is or should be
claim
a statement that conveys a person’s sense of how the world is or how it should be
thesis statement
a single, declarative sentence in which the speaker makes the central, overarching argument of their entire speech
main points
the claims that undergird and support our thesis statement
sub-points
the smaller assertions we make about the world in support of our main points
evidence
credible information about the world that can be used to support a claim
inartistic forms of proof
definition, testimony, statistics, laws, contracts, oaths, narratives
definition
the establishes meaning and interpretation of a term
testimony
public statements made by a witness that describe an event, idea, or situation
statistics
scientifically significant sets of data on a subject of public concern
laws, contracts, and oaths
binding agreements and documents affirmed through the law or the word of another person
narratives
a story that sheds light on an issue or exemplifies a point
artistic forms of proof
ethos, pathos, logos
logos
when a speaker presents their information in a clear and logical manner
ethos
the credibility of a speaker, particularly their ethics, character, and experiences
pathos
the use of emotional appeals by the speaker
warrant
a form of reasoning that connects evidence to a claim
types of warrants
induction, deduction, cause, analogy, sign
induction
reasoning that uses a number of specific cases to draw a general conclusion or claim
deduction
uses a general principle to reason what happened in a particular case
cause
showing that a person, event, or object reasonably produced a change in the world
analogy
a form of reasoning that works by identifying the same kind of relationship between multiple kinds of persons, objects, events, or items
sign
pointing to something that signifies the presence of something else
what are the secondary dimensions of argument
backing, qualifier, rebuttal
backing
evidence that shows that the speaker’s reasoning is credible, authoritative, and makes sense
qualifier
a statement of the degree to which the speaker is certain that a claim is true or valid
rebuttal
a statement that acknowledges the circumstances under which the speaker’s argument would no longer be valid
logical fallacies
unreasonably structures arguments that seek to make poor arguments appear to be good arguments
what are the logical fallacies
ad hominem, bandwagon, slippery slope, what-about-ism, false dilemma, false cause, red herring, strawman,
ad hominem
attacks a person instead of challenging the person’s argument
bandwagon
claims that something should be done just because it is popular
slippery slope
a claim that a small and reasonable step will inevitably lead to the most severe and outlandish outcome
what-about-ism
speaker’s attempts to avoid criticism by suggesting the critic is actually just as guilty or wrong as the speaker
false dilemma
present two options to the audience as their only possible choices when there are actually multiple choices
False cause
just because one event happened prior to another event, the first event must have caused the second event
hasty generalization
pervert the logic of induction to advance an unethical claim
red herring
the speaker introduces information or ideas into an argument to confuse or distract from the information that actually matters
strawman
a speaker intentionally mischaracterizes the position of their opponent and then attacks their opponent for that position
research
the act of considering, finding, and collecting ideas and evidence in support of claims about the world
ideas for brainstorming
randomization, free association, mindlessness, be in nature, study abstract art, check news and trending
what should be the characteristics of a thesis?
short, declarative, interesting, goal-oriented, manageable
academic sources
research that is produced by professional scholars and published in peer-reviewed academic outlets
non-academic sources
ideas, reporting, and opinions from writers, critics, leaders, and community members that express their viewpoint or experience
restricted research
online research conducted through libraries and databases that are not accessible to the general public for free
infotainment
online and TV personalitites that use the news to produce content to entertain, enrage, or work up audiences for profit
global plagiarism
taking another person’s complete work and attempting to pass it off as your own
incremental plagiarism
the taking of a short line or small amount of information from another person’s work without proper citation
patchwork plagiarism
the taking of statements or ideas from many different people’s work and combining them into your own work without proper citation
self-plagiarism
the unauthorized reuse of one’s own work in multiple places or publication outlets
organization
the inclusion and arrangement of key elements of a speech
structures
parts of a speech that do particular tasks and work together to achieve the goal of the speech
order
the manner in which the component structures of a speech are arranged to achieve a particular speech’s goal
ephemeral
it is said an then it disappears immediately, out of sight out of mind unless what we say leaves an impression
ordering principles
general rules about order that are shaped by human psychology and experience
primacy principle
whichever point or idea in your speech is the strongest or most important should go first
recency principle
whichever point or idea in your speech is the strongest or most important should go last
ordering patterns
prefabricated methods of ordering points that are applied to the entirety of a speech
chronological pattern
ordering main points by time, step, or process
spatial pattern
ordering your main points by location, juxtaposition, or hierarchy
circular pattern
ordering your main points as proceeding through a cycle or by returning to the beginning
narrative pattern
ordering your main points as a story
topoi
common lines of argument that a good speaker can go to that are applicable for almost any topic or subject matter
what are the common topoi
possible/impossible
cause and effect
past fact/future fact
preparation outline
an outline that includes a complete accounting of all the information the speaker wants to provide in their speech in full and complete sentences
keyword outline
an appreviated version of the preparation outline that includes key words, phrases, ideas, and evidence that can jog the speaker’s mind
style
the ways in which the speaker uses language to advance their message
language
should be understood as one of the most prevalent symbolic systems human beings use to create and share meaning about their world, and ultimately to change it
symbols
written, spoken, or visual representations that stand in for or represent something else
semantic triangle of meaning
one person uses a word (symbol) that represents a thought about a thing that exists in the world (referent)
speaking for clarity
a style of speech in which the speaker uses simple words, basic sentence structure, and ample definitions in order to teach the audience about something they do not know
what are the aspects of speaking for clarity
definition, directness, simplicity
speaking for entertainment
a speaking style that uses complex word play and ambiguity in order to give an audience a sense of joy
aspects of speaking for entertainment
ambiguity, irony, self deprecation
ambiguity
the undefined, unclear, a vague description of a problem
irony
a trope in which the speaker implies a meaning different or opposite of the literal meaning
speaking for eloquence
a style of speaking in which the speaker uses beautiful, poetic, and complex language in order to inspire the audience to action
aspects of speaking for eloquence
metaphor, simile, alliteration, parallelism
parallelism
the repetition of a particular wording across multiple, adjacent sentences
Dimensions of delivery
eye contact, facial expressions, articulation, pronunciation, rate, vocal variety, posture, breathing and volume, gestures, proxemics
proxemics
the ways in which speakers use space to advance their speaking situation
emphatic gestures
a relatively benign use of the hand to motion or signal that a point in the speech merits the audience’s attention
illustrative gesture
the form of the gesture itself has a meaning that is distinct from the speaker’s words
speaking aid
a wide array of artifacts and tools at the disposal of the speaker to aid them in amplifying the message of their speech
kinds of speaking aids
visual aid, audio aid, hepatic aid, olfactory aid, environmental aid, digital aid
visual aid
a speaking aid that appeals to the audience in visual forms in order to convey, emphasize, or amplify the verbal message of a speech
visual aggregation tools
software programs that gather, collect, and modify different kinds of visual information and mediums into a single stream for displaying to an audience
hepatic aid
speaking aids that rely on touch, textures, and the ability to encounter the authentic and genuine
environmental aid
speaking aids that can be pointed to or invoked in the space a speech is delivered in
factors to use speaking aids safely and ethically
timely use, space and occasion appropriate, distraction-free, safe and legal
informative speaking
the form of speaking that empowers others to decide or act
objectivity
the belief that speakers can address a topic without allowing their personal viewpoint and beliefs to shape or interfere with the information they provide an audience
examples of informative speaking
briefings, public advisories, testimony, lectures, tutorials
deliberation
the mindful and thorough investigation of public problems and policy solutions through speech
public deliberation
a form of communication that features open spaces for citizens to come together, good and fair information to help structure the conversation, and skilled facilitators to guide the process
wicked problems
problems that have no technical solutions, primarily because they involve competing underlying values and paradoxes that require either tough choices between opposing goods or innovative ideas that can transcend the inherent tensions
tips for facilitating a dialogue
prepare dialogue questions in advance
ask open-ended questions
pause for participation
encourage wide participation
encourage the audience to use the language of the speech
actively ask for opposing viewpoints
actively seek out values that you did not mention
policy speech
a speech in which the speaker identifies a problem of public concern and advocates a particular course of action to resolve or minimize that problem
confirmation bias
people’s tendency to take evidence that confirms their existing views at face value while being highly critical and suspicious of information that challenges their existing view of an issue
partisanship
the knee-jerk belief that the best policy is whatever policy is advocated for by those who share a political affiliation
identity-protective cognition
people process information about the world so that it confirms their own ideas about who they are
authoritarian dynamic
people’s psychological tendency to demand strict traditionalism, security, and limitations of permissiveness and change in the face of perceived risk to themselves and their values
backfire effect
correcting a person’s misperceptions about a policy actually leads them to believe that misperception more deeply
what are successful ways to persuade?
relevance and engagement, repetition, empathy and perspective-taking, moral reframing, anticipating counter-arguments and disadvantages
moral reframing
using the audience’s moral perspectives to persuade them to adopt a different policy position
examples of policy speeches
campaign policy, legislative debate, advocacy groups
organization of a policy speech
problem solution
problem-cause-solution
comparative advantage
monroe’s motivated sequence
compatative advantage
speaker aims two contrasting policies against each other
monroe’s motivated sequence
attention step, need step, satisfaction stem, visualization step, action step
skills for a Q & A session
competence, collaboration, control, common sense
loaded question
questions with assumptions already built into the question
question types to watch out for in a Q & A session
loaded questions, complex questions, vague questions, non-question/open disagreement
commemorative speech
a speech that praises a person or action as exemplary of a community value
speech of value
an address in which the speaker sets out a particular admirable belief as meriting adoption by the audience
the presence of something before or in the hands of the community, what we might think of as the people
public
the ongoing, simultaneous conversations community members have with each other about how to maintain and remake the world
public discourse
the exchange of symbols between people in an effort to understand or influence each other’s perception of the world
communication
a holistic attempt to account for the major attributes that are at work in most communication interactions
standard model of communications
the work the sender does to a message to put it into a format appropriate for communication in a particular situation
encoding
the work the receiver does to translate the speaker’s encoding into a format they can interpret and understand
decoding
the verbal and non-verbal signals a receiver provides a sender in the course of communicating
feedback
anything that interferes with the successful transmission of a message
noise
communication that takes place within a person’s own mind, primarily through thinking and internal dialogue
intrapersonal communication
communication that takes place between two or three people and typically concerns the creation, maintenance, or disillusion of personal relationship
interpersonal communication
communication that takes place among a small group of people, particularly teams, and is often focused on the completion of a task
group communication
communication that takes place within and between large institutions and their members
organizational communication
communication that takes place through media of many kinds, including television, film, and social or print media, and is transmitted to large audiences
mass communication
communication that takes place between a speaker and an audience with the aim of engaging that audience on a topic of shared concern about the public interest
public communication
small, targeted tasks that the speaker hopes to achieve over the course of a speech in order to improve its effectiveness
minor goals
the single, focuses, overarching achievement the speaker hopes to attain with her audience by the end of the speech in order to be successful
primary goals
single, declarative sentence in which the speaker makes the central, overarching argument of their entire speech
thesis statement
earliest practices of speechmaking and storytelling by which societies shared and passed on histories, common sense, and culture
oral traditions
the belief that effective public speaking should only be formals, rational, emphasize western values, and be practiced almost exclusively by white men
dominant paradigm of public speaking
acknowledges that there are many speaking traditions and ways in which those traditions can be integrated or used independently in order to do effective and confident public speaking
multicultural paradigm of public speaking
socially created practices and values for understanding the world
cultures
an exercise of the human right to share ideas and opinions with others without interference from governments or other forms of authority
free expression
speech that advocates the use of force in a lawless and immediate way
incitement
a knowingly false statement made in public that harms the reputation of another person or entity
defamation
when defamation occurs in speech
slander
defamation that occurs in print or visual media
libel
speech that offends, threatens, or insults groups, based on race, color, religion, national origin, sexual orientation, disability, or other traits
hate speech
the personal and consistent principle that individuals use to determine what is good and bad
morals
socially defined expectation of good and bad behavior, which are almost always variable by context
ethics
a speaker who appeals to popular prejudices rather than reason and argument
demagogue
a world in which people are willing to believe only their own interpretation of the world, even when there are no facts to support that the world actually exists in that way
post-truth society
the various ways in which people’s experiences in and understanding of the world are expressed in their sense of self and others
difference
a society constituted by many different kinds of people who believe many different kinds of things yet work in common cause and tolerance for the betterment of the community as a whole
pluralistic society
the belied that language and behaviors that offend marginalized communities in a given society should be curtailed and replaced with statements and acts that affirm these communities place in that society
political correctness
locations, places, and sites in the world in which individuals and communities can take refuge from opinions, expectations, and assumptions other people make about them
safe spaces
sites in which we emphasize the need for courage rather than the illusion of safety in public discourse
brave spaces
generalizing our experience, bias, stereotyping, ethnocentrism, speaking for others, only seeing one side of a person, defensive speaking and listening, disengagement
mistakes in speaking across difference
listen to criticism, admit mistakes, and grow, use inclusive language, speak for yourself and invite others to speak, take up less time and space, be open-minded, be self-reflective, ask questions but do your work first
strategies for speaking across difference
a common form of nervousness people feel before, during, and/or after speaking before groups of people in a public setting
public speaking anxiety (glossophobia)
a broad term for the many types of anxieties people have about communication in general
communication apprehension
produce anxiousness around general categories of human experience because of our distinct personalities or experiences
trait anxieties
anxiety about communication that is linked to a particular situation, circumstance or moment
state anxiety
an assessment of members of the audience’s identities, interests, and beliefs that can help the speaker shape their message
audience analysis
a written document that asks the audience to provide the speaker with information about the audience’s race, class, gender identity, sexual orientation, or other similar information
demographic survey
reaching out to the speech organizer and asking that person for their assessment of the likely makeup of the audience
informant survey
quickly judging based on what they can see what kinds of people are in the audience
visual survey
where the speaker asks the audience to raise their hand if they fall into a particular category or have had a particular experience
hand survey
a well-supported and well-reasoned assertation about the world as it is or should be
argument
a statement that conveys a person’s sense of how the world is or how it should be
claim
a single, declarative sentence in which the speaker makes the central, overarching argument of their entire speech
thesis statement
the claims that undergird and support our thesis statement
main points
the smaller assertions we make about the world in support of our main points
sup-points
credible information about the world that can be used to support a claim
evidence
establishes meaning and interpretation of a term
definition
public statements made by a witness that describe an event, idea, or situation
testimony
scientifically significant sets of data on a subject of public concern
statistics
binding agreements and documents affirmed through the law or the word of another person
laws, contracts, and oaths
a story that sheds light on an issue or exemplifies a point
narratives
when the speaker presents their information in a clear and logical manner
logos
the credibility of a speaker, particularly their ethics, character, and experiences
ethos
the use of emotional appeals by the speaker
pathos
a form of reasoning that connects evidence to a claim
warrant
reasoning that uses a number of specific cases to draw a general conclusion or claim
induction
uses a general principle to reason what happened in a particular case
deduction
showing that a person, event, or object reasonably produced a change in the world
cause
a form of reasoning that works by identifying the same kind of relationship between multiple kinds of persons, objects, events, or items
analogy
pointing to something that signifies the presence of something else
sign
evidence that shows that the speaker’s reasoning is credible, authoritative, and makes sense
backing
a statement of the degree to which the speaker is certain that a claim is true or valid
qualifier
a statement that acknowledges the circumstances under which the speaker’s argument would no longer be valid
rebuttal
unreasonably structured arguments that seek to make poor arguments appear to be good arguments
logical fallacies
attacks a person instead of challenging the person’s argument
ad hominem
claims that something should be done just because it is popular
bandwagon
a claim that a small and reasonable step will inevitably lead to the most severe and outlandish outcome
slippery slope
what-about-ism
speaker’s attempts to avoid criticism by suggesting the critic is actually just as guilty or wrong as the speaker
present two options to the audience as their only possible choices when there are actually multiple choices
false dilemma
just because one event happened prior to another event, the first event must have caused the second event
false cause
pervert the logic of induction to advance an unethical claim
hasty generalization
the speaker introduces information or ideas into an argument to confuse or distract from the information that actually matters
red herring
a speaker intentionally mischaracterizes the position of their opponent and then attacks their opponent for that position
strawman
the act of considering, finding, and collecting ideas and evidence in support of claims about the world
research
research that is produced by professional scholars and published in peer-reviewed academic outlets
academic sources
ideas, reporting, and opinions from writers, critics, leaders, and community members that express their viewpoint or experience
non-academic sources
online research conducted through libraries and databases that are not accessible to the general public for free
restricted research
online and TV personalities that use the news to produce content to entertain, enrage, or work up audiences for profit
infotainment
taking another person’s complete work and attempting to pass it off as your own
global plagarism
the taking of a short line or small amount of information from another person’s work without proper citation
incremental plagiarism
the taking of statements or ideas from many different people’s work and combining them into your own work without proper citation
patchwork plagiarism
the unauthorized reuse of ones own work in multiple places or publication outlets
self plagiarism
the inclusion and arrangement of key elements of a speech
organization
parts of a speech that do particular tasks and work together to achieve the goal of the speech
structures
the manner in which the component structures of a speech are arranged to achieve a particular speech’s goal
order
it is said and then it disappears immediately, out of sight out of mind unless what we say leaves an impression
ephemeral
general rules about order that are shaped by human psychology and experience
ordering priniciples
whichever point or idea in your speech is the strongest or most important should go first
primacy principle
whichever point or idea in your speech is the strongest or most important should go last
recency principle
prefabricated methods of ordering points that are applied to the entirety of a speech
ordering patterns
ordering main points by time, step, or process
chronological pattern
ordering your main points by location, juxtaposition, or hierarchy
spatial pattern
ordering your main points as proceeding through a cycle or by returning to the beginning
circular pattern
ordering your main points as a story
narrative pattern
common lines of argument that a good speaker can go to that are applicable for almost any topic or subject matter
topoi
an outline that includes a complete accounting of all the information the speaker wants to provide in their speech in full and complete sentences
preparation outline
an abreviated version of the preparation outlune that includes key words, phrases, ideas, and evidence that can jog the speaker’s mind
keyword outline
the ways in which the speaker uses language to advance their message
style
should be understood as one of the most prevalent symbolic systems human beings use to create and share meaning about their world, and ultimately to change it
language
written, spoken, or visual representations that stand in for or represent something else
symbols
one person uses a word (symbol) that represents a thought about a thing that exists in the world
semantic triangle of meaning
a style of speech in which the speaker uses simple words, basic sentence structure, and ample definitions in order to teach the audience about something they don’t know
speaking for clarity
a speaking style that uses complex word play and ambiguity in order to give an audience a sense of joy
speaking for entertainment
a trope in which the speaker implies a meaning different or opposite of the literal meaning
irony
a style of speaking in which the speaker uses beautiful, poetic, and complex language in order to inspire the audience to action
speaking for eloquence
the repetition of particular wording across multiple, adjacent sentences
parallelism
the ways in which speakers use space to advance their speaking situation
proxemics
a relatively benign use of the hand to motion or signal that a point in the speech merits the audience’s attention
emphatic gestures
the form of the gesture itself has a meaning that is distinct from the speaker’s words
illustrative gestures
a wide array of artifacts and tools at the disposal of the speaker to aid them in amplifying the message of their speech
speaking aid
a speaking aid that appeals to the audience in visual forms in order to convey, emphasize, or amplify the verbal message of a speech
visual aid
software programs that gather, collect, and modify different kinds of visual information and mediums into a single stream for displaying to an audience
visual aggregation tools
speaking aids that rely on touch, textures, and the ability to encounter the authentic and genuine
hepatic aid
speaking aids that can be pointed to or invoked in the space a speech is delivered in
environmental aid
the form of speaking that empowers others to decide or act
informative speaking
the belief that speakers can address a topic without allowing their personal viewpoint and beliefs to shape or interfere with the information they provide an audience
objectivity
the mindul and thorough investigation of public problems and policy solutions through speech
deliberation
a form of communication that features spaces for citizens to come together, good and fair information to help structure the conversation, and skilled facilitators to guide the process
public deliberation
problems that have no technical solutions, primarily because they involve competing underlying values and paradoxes that require either tough choices between opposing goods or innovative ideas that can transcend the inherent tensions
wicked problems
a speech in which the speaker identifies a problem of a public concern and advocates a particular course of action to resolve or minimize that problem
policy speech
peoples tendency to take evidence that confirms their existing views at face value while being highly critical and suspicious of information that challenges their existing view of an issue
confirmation bias
the knee-jerk belief that the best policy is whatever policy is advocated for by those who share a political affiliation
partisanship
people process information about the world so that it confirms their own ideas about who they are
identity-protective cognition
people’s psychological tendency to demand strict traditionalism, security, and limitations of permissiveness and change in the face of perceived risk to themselves and their values
authoritarian dynamic
correcting a person’s misperceptions about a policy actually leads them to believe that misperception more deeply
backfire effect
using the audience’s moral perspectives to persuade them to adopt a different policy position
moral reframing
speaker aims two contrasting policies against each other
comparative advantage
attention step, need step, satisfaction step, visualization step, action step
monroe’s motivated sequence
questions with assumptions already built into the question
loaded question
a speech that praises a person or action as exemplary of a community value
commemorative speech
an address in which the speaker sets out a particular admirable belief as meriting adoption by the audience
speech of value
