Final Flashcards
Altruism
helping others in need without receiving or expecting reward for doing so
attitude inoculation
a strategy for strengthening attitudes and making them more resistant to change by first exposing people to a weak counter-argument and then refuting that argument
bystander effect
the observation that an individual is less likely to help when they perceive that others are not helping
central route to persuasion
focuses on facts, logic, and the content of a message in order to persuade
cognitive dissonance theory
when we hold inconsistent beliefs, it creates a kind of aversive inner tension, or “dissonance”; we are then motivated to reduce this tension in whatever way we can
construal-level theory
describes how information affects us differently depending on our psychological distance from the information
contact hypothesis
predicts that social contact between members of different groups is extremely important to overcoming prejudice
diffusion of responsibility
the reduced personal responsibility that a person feels when more people are present in a situation
door-in-the-face technique
involves asking for something relatively big, then following with a request for something relatively small
dual-process models
models of behaviour that account for both implicit and explicit processes
elaboration likelihood model
(ELM) a dual-process model of persuasion that predicts whether factual information or other types of information will be most influential
explicit processes
correspond roughly to “conscious” thought: deliberative, effortful, relatively slow, and generally under our intentional control
external attribution
the observer explains the actor’s behaviour as the result of the situation
false consensus effect
tendency to project the self-concept onto the social world
foot-in-the-door technique
involves making a simple request followed by a more substantial request
fundamental attribution error
(FAE) the tendency to over-emphasize internal (dispositional) attributions and under-emphasize external (situational) factors when explaining other people’s behaviour
groupthink
a decision-making problem in which group members avoid arguments and strive for agreement
identifiable victim effect
people are more powerfully moved to action by the story of a single suffering person than by information about a whole group of people
implicit associations test
(IAT) measures how fast people can respond to images or words flashed on a computer screen
implicit processes
correspond to “unconscious” thought: intuitive, automatic, effortless, very fast, and operate largely outside of our intentional control
informational influence
occurs when people feel the group is giving them useful information
in-group bias
positive biases toward the self get extended to include one’s ingroups and people become motivated to see their ingroups as superior to their outgroups
in-groups
groups we feel positively toward and identify with
internal attribution
the observer explains the behaviour of an actor in terms of some innate quality of that person
mimicry
taking on for ourselves the behaviours, emotional displays, and facial expressions of others
naïve realism
the assumption that our perceptions of reality are accurate, that we see things the way that they are
normative influence
the result of a social pressure to adopt a group’s perspective in order to be accepted, rather than rejected, by a group
ostracism
being ignored or excluded from social contact
outgroups
those “other” groups that we don’t identify with
peripheral route to persuasion
focuses on features of the issue or presentation that are not factual
person perception
the processes by which individuals categorize and form judgments about other people
prejudice
affective, emotionally laden responses to members of outgroups, including holding negative attitudes and making critical judgments of other groups
self-fulfilling prophecies
a first impression (or an expectation) affects one’s behaviour, and then that affects other people’s behaviour, leading one to “confirm” the initial impression or expectation
self-serving biases
biased ways of processing self-relevant information to enhance our positive self-evaluation
social facilitation
occurs when one’s performance is affected by the presence of others
social loafing
occurs when an individual puts less effort into working on a task with others
social norms
the (usually unwritten) guidelines for how to behave in social contexts
social roles
guidelines that apply to specific positions within the group
stereotype
a cognitive structure, a set of beliefs about the characteristics that are held by members of a specific social group; these beliefs function as schemas, serving to guide how we process information about our social world
thin slices of behaviour
very small samples of a person’s behaviour
appraisal
the cognitive act of assessing and evaluating the potential threat and demands of an event
body mass index
(BMI) a statistic commonly used for estimating a healthy body weight given an individual’s height
brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF) a protein in the nervous system that promotes survival, growth, and formation of new synapses
compensatory control
psychological strategies people use to preserve a sense of non-random order when personal control is compromised
coping
the processes used to manage demands, stress, and conflict
coronary heart disease
a condition in which plaques form in the blood vessels that supply the heart with blood and oxygen, resulting in restricted blood flow
cortisol
a hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex (the outer part of the adrenal gland) that prepares the body to respond to stressful circumstances
fight-or-flight response
a set of physiological changes that occur in response to psychological or physical threats
general adaptation syndrome
(GAS) a theory of stress responses involving stages of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis
(HPA) a neural and endocrine circuit that provides communication between the nervous system (the hypothalamus) and the endocrine system (pituitary and adrenal glands)
individual zone of optimal functioning
(IZOF) a range of emotional intensity in which an individual is most likely to perform at their best
learned helplessness
an acquired suppression of avoidance or escape behaviour in response to unpleasant, uncontrollable circumstances
meditation
any procedure that involves a shift in consciousness to a state in which an individual is highly focused, aware, and in control of mental processes
mindfulness-based stress reduction
(MBSR) a structured relaxation program based on elements of mindfulness meditation
negative affectivity
the tendency to respond to problems with a pattern of anxiety, hostility, anger, guilt, or nervousness
optimism
the tendency to have a favourable, constructive view on situations and to expect positive outcomes
pessimism
the tendency to have a negative perception of life and expect negative outcomes
pessimistic explanatory style
the tendency to interpret and explain negative events as internally based (i.e., as being due to that person rather than to an external situation) and as a constant, stable quality
positive psychology
uses scientific methods to study human strengths and potential
post-traumatic growth
the capacity to grow and experience long-term positive effects in response to negative events
psychoneuroimmunology
the study of the relationship between immune system and nervous system functioning
resilience
the ability to effectively recover from illness or adversity
set point
a hypothesized mechanism that serves to maintain body weight around a physiologically programmed level
social contagion
the often subtle, unintentional spreading of a behaviour as a result of social interactions
social resilience
the ability to keep positive relationships and to endure and recover from social isolation and life stressors
stress
a psychological and physiological reaction that occurs when perceived demands exceed existing resources to meet those demands
Type A personality
people who tend to be impatient and worry about time, and are easily angered, competitive, and highly motivated
Type B personality
people who are more laid-back and characterized by a patient, easygoing, and relaxed disposition
abnormal psychology
the psychological study of mental illness
active phase
phase of schizophrenia during which people typically experience delusional thoughts, hallucinations, or disorganized patterns of thoughts, emotions, and behaviour
agoraphobia
an intense fear of having a panic attack in public; as a result of this fear, the individual may begin to avoid public settings and increasingly isolate themself
antisocial personality disorder
(APD) a profound lack of empathy or emotional connection with others, a disregard for others’ rights or preferences, and a tendency toward imposing their own desires, often violently, onto others regardless of the consequences for other people or, often when younger, animals
anxiety disorders
a category of disorders involving fear or nervousness that is excessive, irrational, and maladaptive
asylums
residential facilities for the mentally ill
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) a developmental disorder in which children show inappropriate levels of hyperactivity and impulsivity while also having problems maintaining their attention to people or activities
autism spectrum disorder
a developmental disorder associated with poor social skills and that may be accompanied by intellectual impairments
avoidant personality disorder
(AvPD) individuals avoid social interactions, including those at school or work, because they feel inadequate and are deeply afraid of being rejected
bipolar disorder
characterized by extreme highs and lows in mood, motivation, and energy
borderline personality disorder
(BPD) a disorder characterized by intense extremes between positive and negative emotions, an unstable sense of self, impulsivity, and difficult social relationships
catatonic schizophrenia
symptoms include episodes in which a person remains mute and immobile—sometimes in bizarre positions—for extended periods. Individuals may also exhibit repetitive, purposeless movements
culture-bound syndromes
expressions of distress that are recognized across a given culture but that tend not to appear outside of that culture
delusions
beliefs that are not based on or well-integrated with reality
dependent personality disorder
(DPD) an excessive need to be taken care of, often requiring frequent assurance from others and help with everyday decision making
diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders
(DSM) a standardized manual to aid in the diagnosis of disorders
diathesis-stress model
the interaction between a genetic predisposition for a disorder and life stress
disorganized behaviour
the considerable difficulty people with schizophrenia may have completing the tasks of everyday life
disorganized schizophrenia
symptoms include thoughts, speech, behaviours, and emotions that are poorly integrated and incoherent; people with disorganized schizophrenia may also show inappropriate, unpredictable mannerisms
dissociative disorder
a category of mental disorders characterized by a split between a person’s conscious awareness and their feelings, cognitions, memory, and identity
dissociative identity disorder
(DID; sometimes referred to as multiple personality disorder) a person experiences a split in identity such that they feel different aspects of themselves as though they were separated from each other; this can be severe enough that the person constructs entirely separate personalities, only one of which will generally be in control at a time
generalized anxiety disorder
(GAD) involves frequently elevated levels of anxiety, generally from the normal challenges and stresses of everyday life
hallucinations
alterations in perception, such that a person hears, sees, smells, feels, or tastes something that does not actually exist, except in that person’s own mind
histrionic personality disorder
(HPD) characterized by excessive attention seeking and dramatic behaviour
major depression
a disorder marked by prolonged periods of sadness, feelings of worthlessness and hopelessness, social withdrawal, and cognitive and physical sluggishness
maladaptive
a behaviour that causes distress to oneself or others, impairs day-to-day functioning, or increases the risk of injury or harm to oneself or others
medical model
sees psychological conditions through the same lens as Western medicine tends to see physical conditions—as sets of symptoms, causes, and outcomes, with treatments aimed at changing physiological processes in order to alleviate symptoms
mental disorder defence
claims that the defendant was in such an extreme, abnormal state of mind when committing the crime that they could not discern that the actions were legally or morally wrong
narcissistic personality disorder
(NPD) characterized by an inflated sense of self-importance and an excessive need for attention and admiration, as well as intense self-doubt and fear of abandonment
negative symptoms
the absence of adaptive behaviour, such as absent or flat emotional reactions, lack of interacting with others in a social setting, and lack of motivation
neurodevelopmental hypothesis
the adult manifestation of what we call “schizophrenia” is the outgrowth of disrupted neurological development early in the person’s life
obsessive-compulsive disorder
(OCD) being plagued by unwanted, inappropriate, and persistent thoughts (obsessions), and tending to engage in repetitive, almost ritualistic, behaviours (compulsions)
obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
(OCPD) a disorder in which individuals are perfectionists who are unusually focused on details, organization, and productivity; these individuals also tend to avoid spending money or throwing out old, worthless objects
panic attacks
brief moments of extreme anxiety that include a rush of physical activity paired with frightening thoughts
panic disorder
an anxiety disorder marked by occasional episodes of sudden, very intense fear
paranoid personality disorder
(PPD) individuals are consistently preoccupied by the belief that other people are attempting to harm or deceive them; they often react with anger to these imagined social or physical threats
paranoid schizophrenia
symptoms include delusional beliefs that one is being followed, watched, or persecuted, and may also include delusions of grandeur or the belief that one has some secret, insight, power, or some other characteristic that makes one particularly special
personality disorders
particularly unusual patterns of behaviour (relative to one’s cultural context) that are maladaptive, distressing to oneself or others, and resistant to change
phobia
a severe, irrational fear of a very specific object or situation
positive symptoms
the presence of maladaptive behaviours, such as confused and paranoid thinking, and inappropriate emotional reactions
prodromal phase
phase of schizophrenia during which people may become easily confused and have difficulty organizing their thoughts, they may lose interest and begin to withdraw from friends and family, and they may lose their normal motivations, withdraw from life, and spend increasing amounts of time alone, often deeply engrossed in their own thoughts
psychosis
when an individual has difficulties distinguishing between what is real and what is imagined
residual phase
phase of schizophrenia during which people’s predominant symptoms have disappeared or lessened considerably, and they may simply be withdrawn, have trouble concentrating, and generally lack motivation
schizoid personality disorder
an individual is socially detached; they do not desire close relationships, including being part of a family, and take little pleasure in most activities
schizophrenia
a brain disease that causes the person to experience significant breaks from reality, a lack of integration of thoughts and emotions, and problems with attention and memory
schizotypal personality disorder
a discomfort with close relationships as well as unusual or eccentric thoughts and behaviours
social anxiety disorder
a very strong fear of being judged by others or being embarrassed or humiliated in public
specific phobia
an intense fear of a specific object, activity, or organism
antianxiety drugs
affect the activity of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), an inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces neural activity
antidepressant drugs
medications designed to reduce symptoms of depression
antipsychotic drugs
generally used to treat symptoms of psychosis, including delusions, hallucinations, and severely disturbed or disorganized thought
atypical antipsychotics
drugs that are less likely to produce side effects, including movement disorders (like tardive dyskinesia), that commonly occur with first-generation antipsychotics
aversive conditioning
a behavioural technique that involves replacing a positive response to a stimulus with a negative response, typically by using punishment
behavioural therapies
therapies that attempt to directly address problem behaviours and the environmental factors that trigger them
bibliotherapy
the use of self-help books and other reading materials as a form of therapy
blood-brain barrier
a network of tightly packed cells that allow only specific types of substances to move from the bloodstream to the brain in order to protect delicate brain cells against harmful infections and other substances
client-centred therapy
(also called person-centred therapy) focuses on individuals’ abilities to solve their own problems and reach their full potential with the encouragement of the therapist
clinical psychologists
have obtained PhDs (typically five years of graduate school plus a one-year internship in a clinical setting) and are able to formally diagnose and treat mental health issues ranging from the everyday and mild to the chronic and severe
cognitive-behavioural therapy
(CBT) a form of therapy that consists of procedures such as cognitive restructuring, stress inoculation training, and exposing people to experiences they may have a tendency to avoid
community psychology
an area of psychology that focuses on identifying how individuals’ mental health is influenced by the community in which they live, and emphasizes community-level variables such as social programs, support networks, and community resource centres to help those with mental illness adjust to the challenges of everyday life
counselling psychologists
mental health professionals who typically work with people who need help with more common problems such as stress and coping; issues concerning identity, sexuality, and relationships; anxiety and depression; and developmental issues such as childhood trauma
decentring
occurs when a person is able to “step back” from their normal consciousness and examine themselves more objectively, as an observer
deep brain stimulation
(DBS) a technique that involves electrically stimulating specific regions of the brain
deinstitutionalization
the movement of large numbers of psychiatric in-patients from their care facilities back into regular society
dream analysis
a method of examining the details of a dream (the manifest content) in order to gain insight into the true meaning of the dream, the emotional, unconscious material that is being communicated symbolically (the latent content)
electroconvulsive therapy
(ECT) involves passing an electrical current through the brain in order to induce a temporary seizure
empirically supported treatments
(also called evidence-based therapies) treatments that have been tested and evaluated using scientific methods
focal lesions
small areas of brain tissue that are surgically destroyed
free association
patients are encouraged to talk or write without censoring their thoughts in any way
frontal lobotomy
surgically severing the connections between different regions of the brain
insight therapies
a general term referring to therapy that involves dialogue between patient and therapist for the purposes of gaining awareness and understanding of psychological problems and conflicts
leucotomy
the surgical destruction of brain tissues in the prefrontal cortex
lithium
one of the first mood stabilizers to be prescribed regularly in psychiatry, and from the 1950s to the 1980s, was the standard drug treatment for depression and bipolar disorder
mindfulness-based cognitive therapy
(MBCT) a technique that combines mindfulness meditation with standard cognitive–behavioural therapy tools
monoamine oxidase inhibitors
(MAOIs) work by deactivating monoamine oxidase (MAO), an enzyme that breaks down serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine at the synaptic clefts of nerve cells
mood stabilizers
drugs used to prevent or reduce the severity of mood swings experienced by people with bipolar disorder
object relations therapy
a variation of psychodynamic therapy that focuses on how early childhood experiences and emotional attachments influence later psychological functioning
phenomenological approach
the therapist addresses the clients’ feelings and thoughts as they unfold in the present moment, rather than looking for unconscious motives or dwelling in the past
posttraumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) is a common psychological illness involving recurring thoughts, images, and nightmares associated with a traumatic event; it induces symptoms of tension and anxiety and can seriously interfere with many aspects of a person’s life.
psychiatrists
medical doctors who specialize in mental health and who are allowed to diagnose and treat mental disorders primarily through prescribing medications
psychodynamic therapies
forms of insight therapy that emphasize the need to discover and resolve unconscious conflicts
psychopharmacotherapy
the use of drugs to attempt to manage or reduce patients’ symptoms
psychotropic drugs
medications designed to alter psychological functioning
repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation
(rTMS) a therapeutic technique in which a focal area of the brain is exposed to a powerful magnetic field across several treatment sessions
residential treatment centres
housing facilities in which residents receive psychological therapy and life skills training with the explicit goal of helping residents become re-integrated into society
resistance
when the patient engages in strategies that keep unconscious thoughts or motivations that they wish to avoid from fully entering conscious awareness
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor
(SSRIs) a class of antidepressant drugs that block the reuptake of serotonin
systematic desensitization
gradual exposure to a feared stimulus or situation is coupled with relaxation training
systems approach
an orientation that encourages therapists to see an individual’s symptoms as being influenced by many different interacting systems
tardive dyskinesia
a movement disorder involving involuntary movements and facial tics
therapeutic alliance
the relationship between the therapist and the patient that emerges in therapy
transference
a psychodynamic process whereby patients direct certain patterns or emotional experiences toward the analyst, rather than the original person involved in the experiences (e.g., their parents)
tricyclic antidepressants
drugs that block the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine
virtual reality exposure
(VRE) a treatment that uses graphical displays to create an experience in which the client seems to be immersed in an actual environment
