final Flashcards
Name the secondary word-formation processes
- shortening
- blending
- back-formation
- reduplication
- lexical ellipsis
Name the marginal word-formation processes.
- sound interchange
- eponymy
- shift of stress
- sound symbolism
- word manufacture
What does it mean when we say that a word- formation process is productive?
Many lexemes can be formed by particular word-formation process.
What is affixation?
Affixation is a productive word-formation process in which new lexemes are produced by adding derivational affixes to at least one root lexeme
Give some noun-forming suffixes.
-tion, -ity, -er, -ness, -ism, -ment, -ant, -ship, -age, -ery.
Give some verb-forming suffixes.
en, -ify, -ate, - ise
Give some adverb-forming suffixes
-y, -like, -en
Give some negative prefixes.
un-, dis-, in-, im-, il-, ir-, non-, de-, mis-
Give some diminutive suffixes
-y/-ie, -ette, -let, -ock, -ling, -o
What is compounding?
Compounding is a process of creating new words by combining at least two root morphemes.
According to their structure, compounds can be divided into:
- simple
- complex
According to the relationship between their components, compounds can be divided into:
- coordinative
- subordinative
. According to the word-formation processes involved, compounds can be divided into:
- mono-formative
- poly-formative
Explain why some compounds are called literal. Give some examples.
- The meaning of the morphemes is compositional.
- Example: classroom, sunlight, deaf-mute
Explain why some compounds are called metaphorical. Give some examples.
- They cannot be interpreted literally.
- Example: chatterbox, pickpocket, nightcap
Give one example of a compound adjective, compound verb, and a compound adverb.
- adjective: brand-new
- verb: downsize
- adverb: outside
- What is conversion?
Conversion is a very productive word-formation process in which a word is converted into a different word-class without adding any affix.
What is indirect conversion? Give an example
- Where a noun is not converted to a verb, but it is pre-modified by verbs such as have, get, take, give, and make, and the phrase has a verbal function.
- Example: take a shower = to shower
The process of shortening can be divided into these types:
- clipping
- acronymy
- initialisms
- graphical abbreviation
Clipping can be defined as …
Clipping involves cutting off one or more letter or syllables of a word.
Depending on which part of the word is clipped, we distinguish these types of clipping:
- initial
- medial
- final
What is the difference between transparent and non-transparent clipping?
- Transparent: the clipped lexeme directly corresponds to a part of the original word
- Non-transparent: the clipped lexeme doesn’t directly correspond to a part of the original word
What is the difference between acronyms and initialisms?
Acronyms are read as regular words. Initialisms are always spelled out, we do not read them as words.
What is special about graphical abbreviation?
This type of shortening is restricted to a written language.
What is blending? Give two examples.
- Blending is a process in which two words merge into one.
- Example: br(eakfast) + (l)unch –> brunch, sm(oke) + (f)og –> smog
Define the term back-formation. Give two examples
- A formation of a new lexeme by means of a deletion of a suffix-like element from apparently complex form.
- Example: editor –> to edit, lazy –> to laze
Give examples of full and partial reduplicatives.
- Full: bye-bye, chop-chop
- Partial: tip-top, chit-chat
Define lexical ellipsis.
An omission of one word of a multi-word phrase/collocation.
What is sound interchange? Give two examples
- This process typically involves a change of word class by the mutation of one or more phonemes within the word/root.
- Example: blood –> bleed, breath –> breathe
What is interesting about the words present, export, frequent, absent, etc. from the word-formative point of view?
Shift of stress
Name some main types of meaning.
- denotative
- connotative
- social
- expressive
- collocational
Can a word have a lexical and a grammatical meaning at the same time? Explain. Give an example.
- Yes. Lexical and grammatical meanings are often inseparable and in most words occur simultaneously.
- Example: boys, cheating, mice
What do the synonyms X (cop) and Y (policeman) have in common, and how do they differ in terms of meaning?
- They name the same thing but they have a different lexical meaning.
- Policeman: denotative meaning
- Cop: expressive meaning
Define the term connotation. Give an example
- Connotation names those facets of meaning which do not affect the lexeme’s basic components of meaning.
- Example: needle
Give an example of a word which is both emotionally and stylistically marked.
Abhor, exquisite
Use the adjective X (heavy) to explain the notion of collocational meaning.
The word heavy has quite different meaning in combination with different word: heavy suitcase (weighting a lot), heavy rain (pouring), heavy work (difficult), heavy schedule (busy)
What is polysemy?
When a word has acquired a new meaning and this meaning is related to the original meaning, we speak of polysemy
Why is polysemy so common?
Words often acquire a new meaning, which is related to the original meaning.
What is the difference between sentence and utterance meaning?
- Sentence meaning can be defined in terms of the combination of at least 3 components: the meaning of the individual words, the order of the words, the semantic scope of these words.
- Utterance meaning is the meaning that sentences have on a particular occasion and in particular context.
Characterize the procedure called componential analysis of meaning.
is taking meaning of the word apart to see from which smaller pieces is the word made out of. It is the way to understand how words work and realte to each other
- Give some types of semantic changes.
- specialization and generalization
- metaphor
- metonymy
- personification
- irony
- hyperbole and understatement
- euphemism and dysphemism
Specialization of a meaning occurs when …
Specialization (narrowing) of meaning means restricting the word’s range of reference.
What does the process of generalization of meaning refer to?
Generalization (broadening) is a process in which a word’s meaning changes to encompass a broader group of referents.
What is the connection between semantic motivation and the notion of metaphor?
Metaphor refers to using a word or a phrase in a way that is different from its normal use. Metaphors often provide a means of understanding abstract non-material domains by relating them to better-known domains and experiences in the physical world.
Metonymy can be defined as …
A contiguity of meaning, where one piece of extra-lingual reality is closely connected with another or forms part of it.
How do hyperbole and understatement differ?
- Hyperbole is an exaggerated statement.
- Understatement is a statement that makes something seem less important, impressive, serious than it really is.
How is litotes formed?
A special kind of understatement in which we express something by means of the negation of its contrary (not bad = good).
Give two euphemisms and two cases of personification.
- Euphemism: pass away, an affair
- Personification: a kettle singing on the stove, a stupid mistake
What components of meaning do the words A, B, C, and D have in common?
plane, motorbike, helicopter, bus: fuel-powered means of transport
bicycle, motorbike, helicopter, hang-glider: not public means of transport
Explain the term euphemism.
The term euphemism refers to a substitution of an expression which is taboo, negative, or too direct by an expression that is mild, comforting, or evasive to avoid shocking or upsetting someone.
Define the notion of dysphemism
Dysphemism refers to the use of a negative or disparaging expression to describe something or someone.
