Final Flashcards
What is cognition? types of cog research (2)
Basic research: understanding w/o use (learning/normal functioning)
Applied research: solution to problems (better understanding & diseases/disorders)
Ways to study cognition (2)
Hypothesis based research
Phenomenon based research
Approaches & uses (cognition) (3)
Cognitive psychology: behavior to understand minds (ex: emotional enhancement effect)
Cognitive neuroscience: linking brain to mind (ex: amygdala to predict emotional response)
Computational modeling: modeling the brain-mind connection (ex: tracing the path & modeling it)
Plato
Plato
- Rationalism: knowledge from observation & prior reasoning
- World: reflection of our reality, not objective
Aristotle
Aristotle
- Empiricism: knowledge from observation only. Though is association from observations
Structuralism
Systematic observation to understand structure of mind.
Self reporting - Unreliable
*Wilhelm Wundt
Criticisms: simplistic + subjective
Functionalism
Why does the mind work?
Cognition -> function
*William James
- believed conciousness is personal & dynamic
- eclectic approach
Criticisms: difficult to study
Behaviorism
Classical conditioning: Pavlov
Instrumental learning: Thorndike
Operant conditioning: Skinner
Criticisms: cant account for complex behavior, learning is not the same across individuals
Hick’s Law
More uncertainty > longer processing
Overload bias & decision fatigue
Cognitive revolution
50s, internal mental state
Aim to understand processesA
Assumptions of cognitive research
- Mental processes exist
- They can be studied scientifically
- We are active info processes
- Basis of mental processes in the brain
EEG
EEG: Electrical activity from ERPs
Bad spatial resolution
Good temporal resolution
MRI
MRI:
Good spatial resolution
Bad temporal resolution
fMRI
fMRI:
functional, Mesures via oxygenated blood
CNS + PNS (2 parts)
CNS: voluntary
PNS: involuntary
- somatic system - conscious
- autonomic system - unconscious
> sympathetic : alert
> parasympathetic : relaxation
Behavioral neuroscience
Neural basis of action
Pro: causal link between brain + behavior
Cons: no info about cognition animalistic structures differ
Behavioral measurements
Behavioral experiments -> voluntary
Psychophysiological measurements -> involuntary
TMS
Stimulation: non invasive
Good to test causality
Might improve memory
Hand to localized effects
Dualism
- Interactionism
- Epiphenominalism
Dualism: mind + brain are separate
Interactionism: soul, each affect ther other
> descartes
Epiphenominalism: physical effect mental, mental does not effect physical
> Luxley: like steam off a train
Monism
- Idealism
- Neutral Monism
- Materialism
Monism : mind + brain are one entity
Idealism: reality is a mental construct
Neutral Monism: underlying nature = neutral 3rd thing
Materialism: reality is due to physical processes
Cognitive neuroscience
Neural basis of cognition
Use neuroimaging techniques
Split brain patients: dual consciousness?
Exteroceptive vs interoceptive sensation (3 for interoceptive)
Exteroceptive: sensation outside body
Interoceptive: sensation from inside body
> proprioception - spatial
> nociception - pain
> equilibrioception - balance
Synesthesia
Cross-talk
chromesthesia: sound > color (like me)
illustrates individuality is psychology
McGurk effect
You hear what you see
One sense influence another
Visual system dominance
Visual Processing steps (early vs late)
Early: light > photoreceptors > RGCs > opticnerve
-> thalamus ->
Late: V1 > … > V5 > visual association areas
- Dorsal : Where, impaired guided motion
- Ventral: What, impaired recognition/matching
Constructivist theory of perception
We use what we know to help percieve reality
Illusions via prior knowledge & expections
Touch pathway, olfaction pathway, taste pathway
Touch: mechanoreceptors > spine > soma-sensory
Olfaction: olfactory epithelium > olfactory bulb
- DIRECT communication
Taste: taste buds > palate > pharynx > upper esophagus > thalamus > primary gustatory cortex
Gestalt psychology (5 principles)
to deal with ambiguity, principles of:
1. experience: ie. figure ground segmentation
2. proximity: close = together
3. Closed forms
4. Good contour: if they are expected to continue we perceive them as continuous
5. Similarity
Direct Models (what are affordances?)
AGAINST top-down perception
sensory infro is rich enough
* J.J Gibson
Affordances: links cues to function (button “affords” pushing)
Blindsight
V1 damage
No explicit perception in that area
Yes implicit perception
Visual info is first processed implicity
Where pathway damage
Akinetopsia
Optic Ataxia
Visual agnosia (2)
Akinetopsia : Visual motion blindness
Optic Ataxia: inability to reach for objects
Visual agnosia (2): difficulty recognizing objects
> apperceptive - failure of perception
> associative - failure of recognition
Template matching vs prototype theory
Template matching theory: every object has a template
CONS: simplistic, demanding, cant explain perspective
Prototype theory:
average representation - flexible context matters (typicality)
Expectation & bistable figures
Expectation mattter
Bistable figure: rabbit/duck; can change instantly
What are sound waves?
See Flashcard 33
Outer, Middle, Inner ear structures (2, 1:3, 3:4)
Outer: collects & focuses
- Pinna + ear canal
Middle: transfers & amplifies
- Ossicles : malleus + incus + staples
Inner: converts to neural signal
- Cochlea: basal (highf) + apex (lowf)
- Know basilar membrane & auditory nerve
How do hearing aids + cochlear implants work?
Hearing aids: Amplification
- Speaker toward eardrum & middle ear
Cochlear implants: Deliver sound directly to auditory nerve
Physical -> perceptual (amplitude, temporal info, wavelength)
Amplitude > loudness
Time & sound level 🔺 > location
Wavelength > frequency
Misophonia
Not a hearing disorder
decreased tolerance to specific sounds
source matters
psychological & physiological
Types of attention (3, what brain areas?)
Top-down: controlled & focuses
> frontoparietal, IPS, FEF, & BAS
Bottom-up: stimuli guided
>TPJ, VFC
Arousal: physiological (alertness)
> autonomic nervous system, reticular activatings
endogenous vs exogenous attention
endogenous: top down
exogenous: bottom up
spatial neglect
VPC damage
severe > hemi-neglect
Balint Syndrome
visual & spatial coordination deficits bilateral PL & OL damage
- Optic ataxia: problems grasping/visual control
- Oculomotor apraxia
- Simultagnosia
Simultagnosia
lack of ability to perceive more than a single object at a time
Optic ataxia
problems grasping/visual control
Oculomotor apraxia
a deficiency in voluntary, horizontal, lateral, fast eye movements (saccades) with retention of slow pursuit movements
Types of top down attention (3)
Sustained attention
Divided attention (shifts between tasks)
Selective attention
> ignore other inputs
> 4 theories*
*Early filter models
Broadbent, filter at perception level
Selected info processed
Evidence for : dichotic listening unattended better by ear
Evidence against: attended info can “break through”
*Treisman’s attenuation model
Early filters dial down unattended info instead of eliminating it
*Late selection filter model
We process to meaning, then select
Evidence for: Stroop task (colored color names)
> interference is evidence we process for meaning then ignore
*Load Theory
Selection occurs at different pts depending on load
High load > early
Low load > late
Sensory >(*ESFM high load)> perceptual>STM (semi filter attenuator) > (LSFM *low load) > Reponses
Load (2 ways to define)
Central resource capacity: one resource pool
Multiple resource capacity: multiple pools capacity reached sooner if info from same pool
Flanker task
High load performs badly no matter what flanks it
Low load: incompatible had higher RT
Flicker technique (change blindness)
change blindness: failure to notice change
Flicker technique: interstimulus mask leads to not noticing change
Inattentional blindness
Failure to notice new or unexpected events
Posner’s spotlight theory & cueing task
Spotlight Theory: we ignore outside of the attentional spotlight, disengage & shift
Cueing task: fixate on screen w/ cue area
target presented
long time interval: target in dif. arrea has faster RT
“been there done that”: recently attended areas inhibited
Visual search tasks (2 phases)
Pre-attention phases:
- object features separately coded
- Bottom up processing
Focused attention phase:
- object features integrated
- Top down processing
Features vs conjunction search
Feature: one feature, bottom-up
> pop-out effect: independent of # of distractors
Conjunction: Multiple features, top-down
Overt vs Covert attention
Overt: attending with eye movement
Covert: attending without eye movement
Attentional capture
Bottom-up: surprise/prediction errors
- we attend what we don’t expect
Universal: faces, biological motion, etc.
Individual: personally relevant , addiction, fears (preparedness premise)
Go/no-Go: slower RT w/ attentive stimuli
Stages of memory
Encoding: form memory trace
↓
Storage: retain memory trace
↓
Retrieval: activate memory trace via cue
Multi-store model
input > sensory mem. >(attending) STM >(rehearsing) LTM
Types of sensory memory (5, time)
Sensory memory is a few seconds
- Gustatory: taste
- Olfactory: smell
- Echoic: sound
- Haptic: touch
- Ionic: sight (millisecond)
STM (where, how long, how many items)
PFC
20-30sec
Chunking: group info (chess study)
Working memory (3 parts)
Phonological loop
> passive verbal info : inner ear
> articulatory control loop: inner voice
Visuospatial sketchpad
> visual cache: feature info
> inner scribe: spatial location/movement
Episodic buffer: STM & LTM integration, concious awareness
LTM
-spaced repetition
-forgetting curve
-testing effect
-levels of processing
> self reference effect
Spaced repetition: reduces forgetting
Forgetting curve is exponential (Ebbinghaus)
Testing effect: test, don’t just study!
Levels of processing: shallow processing has sensory focus, deep integrates w/ higher level knowledge. ex: self reference effect
Decay vs Interference theory
Decay theory: memories lost via disuse
Interference theory: memories disputed during pre-consolidation
> Proactive - prior info interferes w/ new
> Retroactive - new info interferes w/ old
Similarity effect: more similar the memory the more likely the interference
Generation effect
Active recall is better than passive
ex: exercises vs readings
Specificity hypothesis & state - dependent learning
Recall is better when encoding & retrieval context overlap
Recall is better in the same state
>ie, drunk-drunk = shallow-shallow
>sober-drunk = deep-shallow
Episodic vs Semantic memory
(patient KC!)
Episodic: specific event & episodes
> context - what, where, when
> hippocampus
Semantic: facts & general info
> no context
> semantic dementia = impaired (left anterior TL)naming & matching
Patient KC had intact semantic but no episodic
Anoetic, noetic, & autonoetic consciousness
Anoetic: IMPLICIT, no awareness/personal engagement
Noetic: SEMANTIC, awareness but no engagement
Autonoetic: EPISODIC, both awareness & engagement
Reappearance hypothetis
Episodic memory trace is recalled the same way each time
Reproduced instead of reconstructed
> unchanged
Flashbulb memories
Vivid memories of emotional/shocking event
No actual memory difference (same amount forgotten)
Belief of accuracy & vividness higher
Consolidation path & distortion
. active memory
↗️ recall ↖️↘️
stimuli > STM —consolidation–> LTM
Retrieval changes a memory trace; distortion
Schemas: create expectation, cause to insert
false info: what must have been
War of Ghosts experiements
Schemas !
Bartlett (1932)
Native Americans story didn’t match Western story
structure > Westerners changed the story over time
Misattribution & misinformation effects
Misattribution effect: failure of source monitoring
> familiar info > wrong source
Misinformation effect: leading questions can create false memories
Procedural Memory
Automatic behavior/actions
BG > motor sequence
PFC > organization
More immune to forgetting
Priming
Prior exposure influences current processing
Habits (how to form & break?)
Explicit + repitition = implicit
Component of OCD & addictions
Forming: reg. striatum
Breaking: reg. INHIBITION of PFC
Retrograde, anterograde, & dissociative amnesia (HM & Clive Wearing)
Retrograde: loss of past memories (Clive Wearing)
Anterograde: don’t form new memories (HM + Clive Wearing)
Dissociative: rare psychiatric disorder
> usually trauma based rather than physical
> retrograde amnesia for episodic/autobiographical
> new identity, lifestyle, etc.
Alzheimer’s trajectory
Mild Impairment MTL
↓
Mild | LTL & PL
↓ |
Moderate | }AD FL
↓ |
Severe | WIDESPREAD
Healthy Memory aging
Loss of 5% every decade after 40
Hippocampus most atrophied
Intact implicit & semantic
Impaired working & episodic
Associative deficit hypothesis:
associative recognition hardest
Extrem Memory (taxi drivers HSAM, OCD)
Taxi drivers have larger p. hippocampi
HSAM people can remember every single day of their lives, IN DETAIL
Consistency in memory recal correlated w/ OCD
Concepts, categories & exemplars
Concepts: general category knowledge, representation
Categories: items grouped according to cencept
Exemplars: items in a category
Organization (dementia, graded)
- superordinate > 2. basic > 3. subordinate
ex: mammal > dog> spaniel
Dementia: 2) more intact than 1&3
Graded organization: at a certain level specificity isn’t helpful
Generalization > concepts
Classic Concept approch
Form rules
Defining features: necessary & sufficient
Characteristic features: common but not necessary
Update list
Good for simple concepts, bad for complex ones
Similarity approach (feature list vs network exemplar vs prototype)
Fuzzy Boundaries
Features list rigid, network flexible
Exemplar list leads to prototype of exemplar overlap
- similar exemplars closer than prototype in network
Prototype theory vs exemplar theory
Prototype
- prototype in memory
- worse at classifying newer
- typicality effect
- doesn’t account for context
(typical bird in farm vs city)
Exemplar
- every instance in memory
- recall some of category & compute similarity
- explains context
Knowledge vs similarity based approach
Knowledge is explanation in lieu of computing similarity
Implicit, intuitive knowledge
Essentialism: the idea that categories have an underlying reality
Ad-hoc categories
Categories for a specific goal
Dissimilar members into temporary category
Perceptual symbols (property verification task)
Links perceptual & conceptual knowledge
PVT: faster RT if engaging a feature from the same sense/percepts asked about.
Living vs non-liiving: visual vs functional
Broca’s aphasia
Wernicke’s aphasia
Conduction aphasia
Paraphasia (2)
What are neologisms?
Broca’s aphasia: NONFLUENT > L inferior frontal gyrus
Wernicke’s aphasia: FLUENT > L posterior superior TL
Conduction aphasia: Impaired Repetition > arcuate fasiculus
Paraphasia (2):
- Verbal: substitute w/ something semantically related
- Phonemic: swapping or adding sounds
-Neologism: made-up words (bromance)
Naturist vs nurturist aguisition
Naturist: pre-equipped, innate capacity to learn language
- Chomsky
- Complex, acquired rapidly, & adaptable
- Support: poverty of stimulus, uniformity, convergence
Nuturist: NOT pre-equipped, acquired thru skill learning
- Behaviorist, trial & error, associative
innateness hypothesis
We are born with grammar principles
Language Acquisition Device (LAD) supports language universal grammar
> we only need to learn specifics
resolving ambiguity (3) & theories of sentence parsing (2)
- Phonological
- Lexical (within word)
- Syntactic, parsing (within sentence)
PARSING:
- syntax first: use rules, local/specific
- Constraint based: expectations, global/holistics
Dual-route model & Dyslexias (2)
. ↗️ letter by letter ↘️
Printed speech
. ↘️mental dictionary↗️
Surface dyslexia: letter-by-letter
- dictionary difficulties
Phonological dyslexia: use mental dictionary
- difficulty reading letter-by-letter (non&new words)
Cross-model priming task
Listen to two scenarios: one biases context (homophones/homographs)
Do lexical decision task at the same time
> word or not word?
Short SOA: both meaning primed
- unrelated world had longer RT
Long SOA: context-related primed
- unrelated & context inappropriate have longer RT
Bilingualism (traditional vs new views, percentages)
Traditional view: bilinguals fully monolingual in both
INDEPENDENT
New view: more plasticity ! they influence each other
≈ 60% of the world is bilingual
70% - MTL, 50% - QC, 18% Canada
Language co-activation (ways to test, what, cognates)
What: both languages active & competing
Tasks: Lexical decision task, pictures naming task
Cognates lead to faster RT
Interlingual homographs —> interference
Facilitation & interferences stronger in L2
Co-activation reading effects
Bilinguals have shorter fixation times for cognates
- longer FT for homographs
Native language NOT intact
Inhibitory control model
Triggered in the presence of competition
Supervisory attention system inhibits unwanted long
Proportional to co-activation level
Language switching & children
Generally: L1 > L2 easier than L2 > L1
- harder to inhibits L1
Children : no behavioral differences for L1
- brain differences from inhibition
Domain-specific vs domain-general
Domain-specific: language control
- test with switching
Domain-general: cognitive control
- test with Stroop, Flanker, Simon
- bilingual advantage
Cognitive reserve & aging
Bilingual have more posterior activation
Monolingual rely ↑ on FL with age
3 or 4 years later dementia onset :)
Bilingualism caveats
Replication crisits
Small sample size
Confirmation bias
* Context dependent: environment that demand bilingualism could demand better cognitive control
Social context
Availability heuristic
Estimate probability based on how easily its brought to mind
Lichtenstein
Affect heuristic
Overestimate risk of something that elicits a stronger emotional response
Representativeness heuristics & baserate neglect
Representativeness heuristic: assume that small samples represent the larger pool
Results in base rate neglect
> ignoring previous rate info (Adam ex.)
& conjunction fallacy
> likelyhood of A is always higher than likelihood of A&B
Anchoring & adjustment
Tendency to overweight initial info
*Kahneman & Tuerske w/ roulette
Important for self report scales
Regression to the mean
Cant always attribute performance changes to manipulation
Extreme values closer to the mean of random processes
Bounded vs ecological rationality
BOUNDED
- Simon, 1957
- Humans are rational relative to constraints
- Heuristics are “good enough”
- We need them when we can’t optimize
ECOLOGICAL
- Gigerenzer, 1999
-Heuristics are optimal
- Can be better than optimization
Kinds of decision making (3)
Perceptual: objective, externally defined choice
Value based: subjective, internal motivation/state
Under risk: ambiguous consequences
Risk profile & risk premium (3 kinds of attitudes)
Risk profile: how we describe decisions
Risk premium: difference between risk gain & certain gain
Kinds:
Risk adverse: positive RP
Risk neutral: no RP
Risk seeking: negative RP
*most people are risk adverse
Rational choices & expected values
Most rational choices maximized expected value
We are not rational creatures
(see 112)
Framing & endowment effects
Framing: People are risk averse when gain framed
People are risk seeking when losses framed
Endowment: tendency to give higher value to objects you possess
Prospect theory (2 aspects)
Shape of utility function (see 114)
- utility (subjective value) depend on state
- losses>gains (lose 1$ hurts more than gain1$)
Probability
-likely events underestimated, unlikely over
- extremity related to availability
Fourfold pattern
High probability|1) Risk |2) Risk
| seeking |averse
——————————————————
Low probability | 3) Risk |4) Risk
| averse |seeking
1) horror movie logic
2) salary/jobs
3) insurance
4) lottery tickets
Dual process theory & affect
Two systems:
1. Limbic, heuristics & biases
FACT & AUTOMATIC
2. FC, rational choice
SLOW & LOGICAL
Affect: moods caused by prediction errors
prediction error (+) —> mood (+) —-> risk seeking
prediction error (-) —> mood (-) —-> risk averse
Illusory correlations
Over-emphasized outcomes
ex: lucky jersey, cuz you wore it when they won one time
Gambler’s fallacy & hot-hand belief
Gambler’s fallacy: False belief that outcomes are limited
ex: “due for a win”, admissions offices more likely to admit after rejection
Hot hand belief: “Winning streak”; false continuation of success
Inductive vs deductive reasoning
Inductive:
- specific > general
- automatic
- low effort
- 7-11 yrs
- unaware? can become a heuristic
Deductive
- general > specific
- slower
-more effort
-teenage years
Logic (what kind of reasoning?)
Deductive reasoning: will be true if systems followed
Syllogisms (2 premises, validity, 3 types)
Premises:
major - general
minor - specific
Validity: premises assumed true, conclude with logic
NOT necessarily true in the real world
Types:
all statements, all A are B
negative statements, no A is B, no B is A
some statement, some A are B (possibly all)
Syllogism fallacies (3)
Atmosphere effect: some A are B, some B are C
so, some A are C < FALSE
Negative statements: mental model theory, cant imagine negative statements
Omission bias
Inaction harder to classify as wrong
the trolly problem
Remove emotion (more utilitarian responses):
vmpF lesions
high functioning autism
positive emotion induction
Belief bias
Some A are B
Some C are D
So some A are D < FALSE
Relies on previous knowledge
Kind of atmosphere effect
Conditional reasoning & Watson’s task
If P, then Q
Watson’s task: test if P, then Q
1)P 2)Q 3)notP 4)notQ
Flip 1&4
Test P>Q, & not Q > not P
Steps to problem solving
1) recognize & represent problem
2) analyze & solve
3) assess effectiveness of solution
4) REPEAT if necessary
Generalization (2 types)
Important for adaptive behavior
Memories of solution should include “essence” for application
Well-defined: all info is there
ex: algorithms, puzzles
Ill-defined: situational, needs info
ex: social situations
greater cognitive load
Moravec’s Paradox
Ai works well w/ certainty, not with uncertainty
Easy for humans = difficult for machines & vice versa
ex: complex calculation
subjectivity of emotionsP
Problem Space (what, ways to navigate)
Representation that include: initial & goal states, paths, constrains
Navigation:
- brute force: leads to combinational explosion
- trial & error: for lower level
false positive local maximum < hill climbing strategy : select option that brings closer means end analysis: sub problems
- forward & backward movement
- importance of recursion !
Analogical problem solving
Apply solution from situation A to situation B
People don’t naturally do this without surface similarity
- even through structural similarity more important
Linked to creativity & insight
Einstellung effect & mental/functional fixedness
(what is pre-utilization?)
Einstellung effect: bias toward familiar problem solving methods
Functional fixedness: “fixed” on object’s known-function
ex: 2 string problem, candle problem comes from pre-utilization (prior experience)
Mental fixedness: overusing mental sets
ex: water jug problem
Insight problem solving
(4 features, subjectivity, expertise)
Forming new patterns or methods: “aha” moment
ex: Gestalt switches
Features: suddeness, ease, positive, confidence
Subjectivity: people cant predict how close they are to solving a problem, unlike non-insight
Expertise: experts ignore non-relevant info & spend more time defining a problem
Psychometrics (IQ tests, validity vs reliability)
Psychometrics: study of psychological assessment
- standardized & follow normal distribution
IQ: avg 100, SD 15, high reliability less validity
CONS: marginalization, external factors
Validity: is it actually measuring what its trying to?
Reliability: able to be replicated
Francis Galton
Dark start to intelligence testing
Eugenics
Alfred Binet
Developed test to assess education needs
Thought his test measured academic output (intelligence)
Simon-Binet test: 30 standardized Qs, easy > hard,
ratio of mental vs chronological age
Weschler tests & Raven’s Matrices (geneticsq)
Weschler: WISC - children & WAIS - adult
- full scale IQ (verbal + performance)
Raven’s progressive matrices: patterns w/ missing sections
- non-verbal - free from linguistic/cultural biases
Genetics is a better indicator than environment (not perfect)
Flynn Effect
Average intelligence increases with time! Society gets healthier and more complex
Two-factor theory
- Spearman
general intelligence (g)
specific abilities (s)
G factor is stable within a person
S factors are task abilities, VARY
- affected by educationg/environment
Cattel & horn theory
Fluid intelligence (like g): ↓ with age
- capacity to acquire knowledge & think flexibly
-> reasoning thinks & genetic basis
Crystallized intelligence (like s): ↑ with age
- acquired knowledge
-> motivated learning, many factors
Savant syndrome
Can be congenital or acquired
suggests different forums of intelligence
-> like Garder’s theory (g!)
Sternberg’s theory
Intelligence is not a system/structure
is the ability to automatize info processes & uses them appropriately
1) Meta - component: higher order planning/decisions
2) Performance component: task execution
3) Knowledge acquisition : processes to learn / store info
Triarchic theory
1) Components interact with certain material/tasks 2) that are relevant to a given situation 3)
Creative, analytical & practical intelligence
Emotion & thinking
Positive mood leads to broad thinking greater susceptibly to mis info
