FINAL

Question 1

PROGRESS TOWARDS GENDER EQUITY

Answer 1

1. New opportunities
2. Government equal rights legislation (e.g., Title IX)
3. Global women’s rights movement
4. Health & fitness movement
5. Increased media coverage of women’s sports

Question 2

BARRIERS OF GENDER EQUITY

Answer 2

1. Budget cuts and privatization of sport programs
2. Resistance to government regulations
3. Few models of women in positions of power
4. A cultural emphasis on “cosmetic fitness” for women
5. Trivialization of women’s sports
6. Male-dominated/identified/centered sport organizations

Question 3

STRATEGIES TO ACHIEVE GENDER EQUITY

Answer 3

1. Use (and change) the law and engage in grassroots activism.
2. Show boys and men how they benefit from gender equity and recruit them as
   allies in making changes.
3. Show girls and women that gender equity in sports involves more than
   expanding opportunities for heterosexual females.
4. Change the way we do sports to create meaningful spaces for those who do not
   identify themselves in terms of orthodox gender ideology.

Question 4

CHANGES IN GENDER EQUITY SINCE 1970’S

Answer 4

• girls only had 2 field days in a year
• did engage but activities usually emphasized grace and beauty as the basis for “ladylike character.”
• today, completely different but still embedded

Question 5

RACIAL IDEOLOGIES IN SPORT MAKE PEOPLE:

Answer 5

“See” sport performances in
“racialized” terms, i.e., in terms of
skin color
 Use whiteness as the taken-for-
granted standard in sports
 Explain the success or failure of
people with dark skin in racial terms
 Do research designed to “discover”
racial difference

Question 6

3 PRIMARY EXPRESSIONS OF RACISM

Answer 6

1) Direct racism
2) Indirect racism
3) Racism on the field

Question 7

three major challenges related to racial and ethnic relations in sports

Answer 7

1. Eliminating racial and ethnic exclusion in sport participation
2. creating an inclusiveculture on sport teams and in sport organizations
3. Integrating positions of power in sport organizations

Question 8

Racial and ethnic diversity is most likely to exist in a sport
under the following conditions:

Answer 8

1. When those who control teams personally benefit if
   they recruit and play the best players regardless of skin
   colour or ethnicity.
2. When athletes’ performances can be measured in
   concrete objective terms so that racism is less likely to
   influence judgements about skills.
3. When an entire team benefits from good performance
   by a teammate, regardless of the teammate’s skin
   colour or ethnicity.
4. When friendships and off-the-field relationships
   between teammates are not required for team success.

Question 9

SPORT IN RES SCHOOLS

Answer 9

SPORT AND RESIDENTIAL SCHOOLS
- Forced indigenous kids to something they thought would contribute; hockey for example
- athletes would get more food rations, plus would get out there more often because missionaries like to show off their gifted kids
- Helpful from the escape from residential schools
- Schools banned indigen sports like lacrosse, to separate children from culture and emphasized winning
- Girls it was worse: forced to knit and do other “womanly” things instead of sport
- Video about lacrosse: focus on the historical wooden stick

Question 10

TRC

Answer 10

DECOLONIZING IS DIFFICULT
- Colonialism is made to appear normal
- Is aggressively protected by those in power

THE TRUTH IN RECONCILATION
- STARTED FROM THE INDIAN RESIDENTIAL SCHOOL AGREEMENT
- Started to be implemented in 2007
- Officially established in 2008
- 96 calls to action: 88-91 are based on sport: huge number

Question 11

Economic & career opportunities in
sports

Answer 11

Social mobility:
 Changes in wealth, education, and occupation over a person’s lifetime or from one
generation to the next in families
 The odds of making big money as an athlete are so low that nobody should bet
much on them, and bets should be hedged with other career goals!
1. The # of paid career opportunities is limited and playing careers are short term
2. Opportunities for women are growing but remain limited on & off the field
3. Opportunities ethnic minorities are growing but remain limited

Question 12

SPORTS ARE ORG SO THAT…

Answer 12

1. Members of the dominant social class in a society may exclude, or define as unqualified, job candidates with characteristics and cultural backgrounds different from their own.
2. Ethnic minorities often must adopt the values and orientations of the dominant social class if they want to be hired and promoted.
3. The values, orientations, and experiences of ethnic minorities are seldom represented in the culture of sport organizations.

Question 13

Conditions for emergence and growth of commercial sports

Answer 13

A market economy
 Large, densely populated cities
 A standard of living that provides people with time, money, transportation, and
media access
 Large amounts of capital (for venue construction and maintenance)
 Culture emphasizing consumption and material status symbols

Question 14

WHY ARE COMMERCIAL SPORTS SO POPULAR

Answer 14

The quest for excitement
 Fit with social class ideology
 Widespread organized, competitive youth sports
 Widespread media coverage

Question 15

Economic motives and the globalization of
commercial sports

Answer 15

 Sport organizations look for global markets.
 FIFA, the NFL, the NBA, etc. seek global media exposure and expansion.
 Corporations use sports as vehicles for global expansion.
 To increase profits
 To sponsor enjoyment and pleasure and establish ideological outposts in the minds of people
worldwide.

Question 16

When sports are commercialized there are changes in

Answer 16

1) Structure and goals
- Rule changes occur to make action more exciting, understandable, and profitable

2) Orientations of athletes, coaches, and sponsors
- Commercial sports involve a shift from aesthetic to heroic orientations.

3) People and organizations that control sports
- Control shifts away from athletes; decisions are less likely to reflect their interests
 Control shifts toward owners, corporate sponsors, advertisers, media personnel,
marketing and publicity staff, professional management staff, accountants, and
agents
 Athletes accept the decisions of these people because their financial interests are at stake.

Question 17

Advantages of monopoly & monopsony

Answer 17

A monopoly enables team owners to:
 Share revenues
 Negotiate high media rights fees
 Prevent the formation of new teams

A monopsony enables team owners to:
 Draft new players to one team only
 Control the careers of athletes
 Minimize bidding for athletes’ contracts

Question 18

Stadium Subsidies: Arguments for

Answer 18

1. A stadium and team create jobs.
2. Stadium construction infuses money into the local economy.
3. attracts other businesses.
4. boost tourism and economic development.
5. social benefits—social unity, civic pride, and sense of personal well-being.

Question 19

Stadium Subsidies: Arguments against

Answer 19

Stadium Subsidies: Arguments against
1. Stadium jobs are low-paid, part-time, and seasonal—except for athletes and
executives.
2. Construction companies and materials often come from outside the local area.
3. New businesses often are franchises that are headquartered in other cities.
4. Entertainment dollars are moved from areas in a region to the area around the
venue, thereby undermining local businesses.
5. Men’s sport teams reaffirm values and orientations that disadvantage many
people.

Question 20

Legal status of athletes in pro team sports

Answer 20

 Athletes in team sports are governed by a reserve system—a set of practices that
team owners use to control the movement of athletes from team to team.
 Players have formed unions to challenge the reserve system and gain free agency—
the right to sell their skills to the highest bidder.
 Free agency exists to varying degrees in major team sports.
 Labor rights for athletes in minor sports are limited.

Question 21

Media and power

Answer 21

Those who control media decide which
sports and events to cover AND the images
and commentary presented in the coverage.
 When they do this, they play an important
role in constructing the frameworks that
media consumers use to define and
incorporate sports in their lives.
 As they make programming decisions, they
see audiences as collections of consumers that
can be sold to advertisers.

Question 22

Images & narratives in media sports:
Ideological themes

Answer 22

1. SUCCESS
2. CONSUMPTION
3. GENDER
4. RACE

Question 23

DO SPORTS DEPEND ON MEDIA

Answer 23

No, not when they are organized by and
for the players themselves
 Yes, when they are organized as forms
of commercial entertainment

Question 24

DO MEDIA DEPEND ON SPORT

Answer 24

Most media do not depend on sports.
 Daily newspapers depend on “sports sections”
for circulation and ad revenues.
 Many television companies depend on sports to
fill programming schedules and attract male
viewers and sponsors that want to reach them

Question 25

HAVE MEDIA CORRUPTED SPORT?

Answer 25

Probably not—for two reasons:
1. Sports are not shaped primarily by media
 Sports are social constructions that emerge in connection with
many social relationships.
2. Media, including TV, do not operate in a political and
economic vacuum.
 Media are regulated by government and market factors, which
influence and set limits on media coverage and content

Question 26

Experiences and consequences
of consuming media sports

Answer 26

1. Research is rare on audience experiences,
   but it appears that watching television
   sports is positively integrated into social
   relationships and social networks.
    Identities are connected with the experience of
   watching sports, and those identities can be
   linked with varying relationships and groups.
    Couples who cohabitate often watch sports
   together, and over time most partners
   accommodate each other’s viewing habits.
2. Active participation in sports
    A positive link exists for:
    Those who are already strongly committed to participation in a sport (Potwarka, 2015).
   When sport organizations promote sport participation and trial in conjunction with elite sport events (Potwarka et al., in press)
   When spectators experience inspiration and fantasize about participating in the action
   (Potwarka et al., 2018)
3. Attendance at sport events
    Media consumption of sports is positively linked with
   attendance at elite events, but it may decrease
   attendance at less elite events—research is needed.
4. Betting on sports
    The Internet provides easy access to opportunities.
    Betting creates interest in sports but threatens them if
   it inspires gamblers to “fix” events.

Question 27

Reasons for connections between government AND SPORTS

Answer 27

1. Safeguard the public order
2. Ensure fairness and protect human rights
3. Maintain health and fitness
4. Promote the recognition and prestige of a community or nation
5. Promote nation-building
6. Reaffirm dominant political ideology
7. Increase support for political leaders and government
8. Promote economic and social development

Question 28

Ideals underlying international sports

Answer 28

There has been longstanding hope that international sports could:
 Open communication lines between people and leaders from many nations.
 Highlight shared interests among people in different cultures and nations.
 Demonstrate that international friendships are possible.
 Foster cultural understanding and eliminate national stereotypes.
 Create a model for cooperative international relationships.
 Establish working relationships that would close gaps between wealthy and poor
nations.

Question 29

Realities of international sports

Answer 29

 Sports have no influence when it comes to serious diplomacy.
 Sports do not affect matters of vital national interest.
 Leaders do not use sports in discussions of vital national interest.
 Sports may be useful at the level of public diplomacy.
 Sports provide opportunities to meet and talk.
 Nation states often use international sports to foster self-interests over
international peace and understanding.
 Ethnocentrism and nationalism often are promoted in international sports.
 Self-interests have influenced bid processes, media coverage, and boycotts.