Final Flashcards
Social Norms
Rules or guidelines in a group or culture about what behaviours are proper and improper. Implicit or explicit.
Conformity
People changing their perceptions, opinions, and behaviour to be consistent with group norms.
Two reasons that people conform
Information influence or Normative influence.
Conforming due to information influence
People conform because they want to be correct, and when everyone else agrees, it is likely that they are correct. More based on information people present/discuss. More likely to conform when uncertain or ambiguous.
Conforming due to normative influence
People conform because they fear the consequences of appearing deviant. Conforming when wanting to be liked. People express prejudices only toward groups that are “ok” to be prejudiced against.
Sherif’s Autokinetic Effect Study
Participant in dark room shown a single point of light. Task: Estimate distance that light moves (difficult & ambiguous task, light is stationary but appears to move). Do task first alone, then with other people in the room. 37% of the time participants agreed with the obviously incorrect majority.
Two types of conformity
- Private conformity: true acceptance or conversion, being truly persuaded others are correct.
- Public conformity: superficial change in behaviour, politicians regularly caught in hypocrisy.
Why do people conform
The clearer (less ambiguous) the activity, the more that desire for acceptance/fear of exclusion predicts public conformity. People who don’t care about being accepted/excluded by group don’t conform. Those that do, do.
When do people conform?
Group size: larger groups have a larger impact on conformity, up to a point. Strength of norms. More likely to litter in littered area. Gender: Asch said women conform more than men, but modern studies says that the topic and expertise matters. A single ally can reduce conformity.
How to be a convincing minority voice of dissent?
Consistent, unwavering. Appearing flexible and open-minded. Stimulates majority group members to reexamine their own views. more influence (but initially more disliked) when part of “us” rather than “them”.
Compliance
Explicit requests for help.
Norm of Reciprocity
If given something, we feel compelled to give back. Eg: Wait staff writing “thank you”, smiley faces, etc, get bigger tips.
Sequential Request strategies
Foot in the door, low-balling, door in the face, that’s not all. All two-step processes: “setting trap” and “springing it”.
Foot in the door strategy
Small initial request that targets can’t easily refuse. Larger later requests are more likely to be accepted. Why? People inferring their attitudes based on their own behaviours. Self perception theory of self.
Door in the face strategy
Initial request is very high and unreasonable. Second then appears more reasonable. Why? Norm of reciprocity: Conceding smaller commitment can be perceived as “giving” something (but first request has to appear sincere). Perceptual contrast: 2nd offer seems smaller than when offered alone.
Low-balling strategy
After you’ve agreed to something, coming back and saying the price is a bit higher than originally agreed. Now you’ve mentally committed to the price/action.
That’s not all strategy
Offer a price, but immediately offer a discount on prince.
Resisting sequential request strategies
All the strategies work if perceived as sincere and employed subtly. When targets think they are being manipulated, it does not work.
Obedience
Explicit requests for conformity from positions of authority. Can be good, can be bad if blind.
Why obedience is important (1966, Hofling experiment)
Hofling (psychiatrist) performed a field experiment. Asked 22 nurses to give an overdose of “Astroten”. 21 did it, even though: on the label it said the maximum dose, they didn’t know the doctor, it was not on their list of approved medications.
Milgram’s Obedience Studies
Trying to understand Nazis. Would normal people obey authority to harm another? Participants elicited (on average) 27 of 30 shocks. 26 of the 40 participants elicited the 450volt.
Social Impact Theory (Latane, 1981)
Total impact of social influence is a function of 3 things:
1. Strength of source: status, ability, authority.
2. Distance: proximity in space and time.
3. Number: how man sources.
Human’s need to belong
People are motivated to form and maintain interpersonal bonds. Optimal human functioning requires close, non-aversive, long-term relationships. The fact that belongingness is a need means that human beings must establish and maintain a minimum quantity of enduring relationships. This need is fundamental and universal. It is not limited to certain people or circumstances.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Physiological, Safety, Love/Belonging, Esteem, Self-actualization.
What is the purpose of human’s need to belong?
It has an evolutionary basis. Our need to belong benefits our survival and reproduction: groups share resources, help care for offspring, being in groups helps with difficult tasks such as hunting large animals. Being in groups has benefits for defending oneself and protecting one’s resources against external threats.
The Heart Disease Study (Coyne et al., 2001).
Relationship quality was measured throug surveys and objective coding of a lab-based conflict discussion. Patients with mild CHF with lower marital quality were similar to those with sever CHF. Evidence for human’s need to belong.
The Cold Study (Cohen et al., 1997).
Social network measure: Diversity of social roles. While in quarantine, researchers administered nasal drops contaning a cold virus to participants. Results: Greater network diversity was linked with lower likelihood of developing a cold. Evidence for human’s need to belong.
More evidence for human’s need to belong
Relationship satisfaction affects satisfaction with work, income, and general health. Happily married couples have stronger immune systems than unhappily married couples. The survival rate of elderly people who have had a hart attack doubles if they receive social support from 2 or more people.
Link between relationships and mortality
People with stronger relationships had 50% increased likelihood of survival. The effect of social relationships on mortality is comparable to other well-known risk factors.
Beyond physical health: what are some benefits of belonging to our subjective well-being?
Simply being part of a supportive social network reduces stress, even if other people do not provide explicit emotion or practical assistance. One’s sense of belonging is related to greater meaning in life.
The Porcupine Challenge
We need to strike a balance between connection and fear or rejection. Building strong relationships require us to be vulnerable and trusting, lending ourselves to get hurt.
Consequences of Deprivation of Need to Belong
Loneliness: Discrepancy between the level of contact one has and the level one desires. Most likely to occur during transitions (move to new city, after romantic breakup). In North America, loneliest group is 18-30 year olds. Declines over life, until health limits social activities in older age.
Consequences of Loneliness
US mortality rates tend to be higher for people who are divorced, single or widowed (compared to married individuals). People who are lonely and have lower quality relationships have poorer immune functioning.
Pros/cons of Need to Belong
Pros: Deep attachment bonds.
Cons: Threats/radicalization
Four main factors of interpersonal attraction
- Proximity
- Similarity
- Reciprocity
- Physical attractiveness
Proximity: Westgate Housing Study
Tracked who became friends in a student housing complex at MIT. 65% of friends mentioned living in the same building. Functional distance was also important: people who lived near stairwells more likely to make friends with people on different floors.
Why does proximity predict attraction?
Long-distance relationships are costly. More Exposure Effect: the more you are exposed to something the more you tend to like it -because familiarity breeds liking.
Proximity and Similarity
Greater proximity often = shared interests. But, only happens if original evaluation of a person is neutral - if similarity is low, proximity can increase negative feelings. Similarity predicts who we are attracted to.
Matching Hypothesis
We tend to end up with others whose attractiveness level (or desirability level) is similar to our own.
Actual vs Perceived Similarity
Do you actually have to be similar to someone, or should you simply think you are similar to someone? Perceived similarity seems to have a stronger effect on initial attraction.
Why does similarity influence attraction?
Facilitates smooth interactions (similar attitudes, less conflicts of interest). Similar others have qualities we like; dissimilar others are “unreasonable.” We expect expect similar others to like us.
Opposities attract?
Condition for opposites: 1. Commitment is low and plans on remaining low. 2. Reassured the other person likes them. Also, if participants want a committed relationship, they choose a similar partner. However, if they feel a low level of commitment to the relationship, they favour dissimilar partners.
Reciprocal Liking
We like people who like us. #1 indicator of attraction across all samples (mutual attraction). Self-fulfilling prophecy: if we believe another person likes us, we behave in more likeable ways.
Playing ‘hard-to-get’
Study found that we like people who like us despite being generally selective.
Why does beauty promote relationship initiation?
- The “what is beautiful is good” effect (the halo effect).
- Beautiful people are more socially skilled.
- Beautiful people are treated differently.
- Beautiful people elicit greater attention from others.
Mirror images on attractiveness
Typically people find mirror images less attractive.
Evolutionary Perspective: Women
Physical: Signs of fertility (waist-to-hip ratio), Face (large eyes, full lips, small nose, prominent cheekbones, high eyebrows, broad smile).
Social: Makeup, revealing clothing.
Evolutionary Perspective: Men
Physical: Signs of masculinity and power, Face (prominent cheekbones, large chin).
Physical Attractiveness Study: Pennebaker et al. (1979)
Power of the situation - traits such as attractiveness can be malleable. 103 women and men recruited from local bars near a university in the southern US. Asked on a scale from 1-10 on attractiveness, how would you rate men/women here tonight? Near midnight (hour before close) the ratings wen up.
Misattribution of Arousal
A process in which people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do. Based on Schacter’s Two Factor Theory of Emotions: Emotions have two components (physiological arousal and cognition).
Keeping the passion alive in long term relationships
Passion often fades because we get comfortable with each other, and feel relaxed, which is the opposite of the arousal needed for passion. Doing novel arousing activities together keeps passion alive (or restores it).
Implicit Theories of Relationships
Beliefs about the nature of relationships. Destiny/soulmate vs growth/work-it-out. A growth mindset is linked to relationship-enhancing responses to relationship challenges. A destiny mindset is linked to disengagement in response in response to relationship challenges - also to sooner break-up, especially in less satisfying relationships.
Implicit Theories: Destiny vs. Growth: Coping with Relationship Stressors
Destiny: Distancing behaviour, no efforts to repair.
Growth: Active coping, planning, re-interpret event in a more positive light, low denial.
Evolutionary Theory
Evolved from evolutionary biology. Only goal of relationships is reproductive success. Sex differences in mate selection.
What do women look for in men?
Psychological constructs: Power, dominance. These traits signal the ability to provide resources to provide for offspring, and to protect offspring. Also look for physical traits such as height, broad shoulders, muscularity, protection.
What do men look for in women?
Physical attractiveness. Health, the ability to produce offspring. Waist-to-hip ratio. Youthful appearance.
Long term vs short-term goals when attracting a mate
Short-term is based on physical for both sexes. Long-term still leans physical for males, but psychological for females (traits that will lead to an ability to provide resources).
Why should be more selective when selecting a mate - men or women?
Parental investment: Physical investment - Women. Monetary (resources) investment - Men.
Perspectives on Love: Evolutionary Theory. Buss et al. (1992): Evolutionary perspective study.
Would you rather your partner form a deep emotional attachment to another person, or enjoy sexual intercourse with another person? Emotional infidelity was more upsetting to women, and sexual infidelity was more upsetting to men.
Attachment Style
The way a person typically interacts with significant others, as guided by internal working models that are developed based on early experience with primary caregivers.
Bowlby’s Attachment Theory
Evolution has ‘wired’ humans to seek closeness and thereby, emotional security.
Secure attachment style
Happy and trusting in relationships. Believes that others are responsive and seek support from partners. Stable emotional lives. Tend to stay in relationships longer.
