final Flashcards
1
Q
human language
A
arbitrary
rule governed
creative
2
Q
parole
A
actual speech that speakers produce
based on underlying system of language
3
Q
langue
A
underlying abstract system of language
the signs & their relationships to one another both in the lexicon & combined into sentences
4
Q
etymon
A
historical word from which more recent form was dervied
5
Q
prescriptive rules
A
establish & enforce what we should say or write according to established notions of good/bad right/wrong
judge the correctness & try to enforce 1 norm
6
Q
descriptive rules
A
attempt to models speakers’ linguistic competence & performance
what speakers know about a language & how they actually use it
7
Q
hypercorrection
A
attempt to speak grammatically that results in a supposed error
give your car to my brother & I vs my brother & me
8
Q
phonetics
A
sub discipline of linguistics that studies speech sounds
how sounds are produced & percieved
9
Q
place of articulation
A
location of articulators in the the production of speech sounds
10
Q
manner of articulation
A
describes proximity of articulators & the accompanying effect on airflow in prodction of a speech sound
11
Q
articulatory phonetics
A
study of sound in language focused on how speakers produce it
12
Q
acoustic phonetics
A
study of sound in language focused on how sound is transmitted
13
Q
auditory phonetics
A
study of sound in language focused on how people perceive it
14
Q
phonology
A
a sub discipline of linguistics that studies the sound system of any given language
examines which sounds make up the distinctive consonants & vowels of a language
15
Q
phoneme
A
what native speakers hear as a distinctive sounds of a language
a sound different from all other sounds in the language
/p/
16
Q
allophone
A
any variant of a phoneme
‘perhaps’ = 2 /p/ sounds, 1 aspirated & 1 not
17
Q
stops
A
a consonant made by a complete block of airflow followed by a release of air
18
Q
fricatives
A
a consonant produced by bringing the passive & active articulators together, creating friction as the air passes
19
Q
affricates
A
a hybrid consonant of a stop & a fricative
20
Q
nasals
A
stop produced when air flows from the lungs through the nose
/m, n/
21
Q
approximants
A
sound made by restricting but not blocking the vocal tract /r, j/
glides & liquids
22
Q
glides
A
speech sound produced by transition from one speech sound to another
/w, j/
23
Q
liquids
A
consonant produced whe articulators are in proximity to each other but do not impede airflow
/l, r/
24
Q
vowel
A
speech sound characterized by unimpeded airflow & produced by shape of the oral cavitiy & the tongue’s shape & position
25
syllabic consonant
consonant that participates in or continues the nucleus of a syllable
26
frontness/backness
indicated whether the tip of the tongue is nearer to the front of the outh or the back of the tongue is nearer to the back of the mouth
27
height
indicated whether the tongue is high, low, or mid
28
tenseness / laxness
indicates whether the tongue muscles are tense or lax
29
diphthong
vowel that begins at one place of articulation & ends at another
30
rounding
whether the lips are rounded when the vowel is produced
back vowels more rounded
front vowels unrounded
31
contrastive distribution
2 sounds that belong in different phonemes
32
complementary distribution
systematic organization of allophones such that no 2 allophones of the same phoneme occur in exactly the same environment
33
natural class
set of sounds that shaire features
row or column
34
assimilation
one segment becomes more like neighbboring segment
35
dissimilation
one segment becomes less like neighrboing segment
36
deletion
one segment is removed in a particular environment
37
insertion
one segment is inserted in a particular environment
38
metathesis
segments are reordered
39
vowel reduction
an unstressed vowel is articulated more toward the center of the vowel space
typically a schwa
40
morphology
study of word forms & the processes by which words are formed
41
morpheme
smallest meaningful unit of language
42
derivational morpheme
morpheme that contributes to formation of a new word
changes meaning
43
free morpheme
morpheme that functions without modification as a word
44
bound morpheme
morpheme used only when attached to a morpheme that can be used independently
45
open morphological class
lexical category to which nnew items can be added
adj, noun, verb
46
closed morphological class
lexical category in which new items rarely develop
conj, determiner, prep
47
combining
the most productive way to form new words in english
compounding, prefixing, suffixing
48
compounding
combining free morphemes
49
shortening
shortening words to form new words
50
alphabetism
word is formed froom the initials of a phrase & the word is pronounced as the sequence of letters
CPU CRL BTW
51
acronymy
groups of words shortened to initials & then pronounced as a word
RAM
52
clipping
a word is 'clipped' when it loses an element, often next to root or base
net, cell, sci-fi
53
backformation
a new word is formed by removing an affix from a word to form a new word
beggar --> beg
54
blending
created by joining 2 or more words
at least 1 must be clipped
hybrid process of clipping & combining
interconnected + network = internet
55
epistemic modal auxilary
auxiliary verb used to indicate that proposition underlying a statement is simply the case or is believed to be the case
dinner MUST be ready
56
deontic modal auxiliary
auxilary verb used to indicate the necessity or inevitability of an action or state
to imply agent's obligation to act as a predicate specifies
to indicate permission
necessity MUST be indicated by means of a deontic modal auxilary
57
syntax
systemic ways in which words combined to create well-formed phrases, clauses, sentences
58
lexical categories
describe the classes of words tha behave similarily in the grammar of a language
parts of speech
59
intransitive verb
verb that does not require or cannot take a direct object
60
transitive verb
verb that requires a direct object
61
ditransitive verb
verb that appears w/ 2 objects
62
linking verb
verb (be or seem) that more or less identifies the subject & predicate of a sentence as the same
63
aspect
indicates whether an action is in progress or complete
momentary ot habitual
64
indicative mood
statements & questions
65
imperative mood
commands
66
subjunctive mood
conditions
67
modal auxiliary
verb used in combo w/ another verb to indicate modality of that other verb
can, may, must
68
modality
conditionality
necessity
possibility
qualify a verb
69
preposition
words that indicated the relation of a noun, pronoun, noun phrase to another noun, verb, or adj
at, by, from, with
70
complementizer
subordinate conj that serves as the head of a subordinate clause that functions as nominal
71
generative grammar
scientific theory created to explain how language is possible & how it happens that any child can learn any language
72
universal grammar
the syste of principles, conditions, & rules that are elements of properties of all human languages
73
constituent
any component that functions as part of a larger linguistic structure
determiner + noun = noun phrase
74
complex sentence
sentence w/ 1 or more subordinate clauses embedded within or appended to the main clause
75
compound sentence
sentence w/ 2 or more independent clauses
76
subordinate clause
clause that cannot function as a sentence but must be attached to or embedded in an independent clause
dependent clause
77
complementizer clause
dependent clause that serves as a noun phrase
typically introduced by that or wh- words
78
relative clause
dependent clause typically introduced by a relative pronoun that functions as an adjectival
relative pronouns - that, which, who, whom, & whose
79
endophoric reference
dependence of 1 noun or pronoun within a text to another preceding it or following it within the same text
80
exophoric reference
reference to something in a text's context or situation
81
deixis
reference to personal, temporal, or locational features of the circumstance in which an utterance is made whose meaning is relative to the circumstance
by means of adverbs (here, there, then, now) & pronouns (this & that)
82
polysemy
general semantic process by which a single word develops many meanings
83
collocation
arrangement of words into a phrase
combination of words that commonly co-occur as a phrase
84
hyponymy
denotes a set of hierarchical semantic relationships
hypernym is a more general term than its hyponyms
dlab, dalmation chihuahua, corgi, weiner dog
85
hypernym
word of more general meaning that other defined in relation to it
dog
86
meronym
figures in the relationship of whole to part
tail, whiskers, paw, ears, & snout
87
gradable antonyms
conceptually opposites but they represent values at 2 ends of a spectrum w/ many valules in between them
fat --> thin, good --> bad, hot--> cold, slow --> fast
88
complementary (non gradable) antonyms
absolutes at opposite conceptual poles
either one or the other, cannot be somewhere in the middle
single & married, awake & asleep, dead & alive
89
converse antonyms
semantically reciprocal
one cannot exist w/out the other
parent & child, student & teacher
90
homonyms
words of radically different meaning that share a word form
either same spelling, same pronunciation, or both
sink - the thing in the kitchen or the verb
both a homophone & a homograph
sink & sync - homophone
91
homophone
words that have the same pronunciation
to, too, two
92
homographs
words that share the same form
dove (bird) & dove (verb)
93
compositionality
in semantics, the view that sentence meaning depends not only on the meanings of a sentence's parts but also on how those parts are put together
94
truth conditions
what msut be true for an utterance or sentence to be true
95
presupposition
assumption that makes the truth of a proposition or utterance possible
assumption of "king of france" allows us to consider the truth of the claim that "the present king of france is bald"
96
metaphorical extension
a word takes on a metaphorical sense, reaching beyond its primary meaning
97
specialization
a word w general meaning becomes a word of more specific meaning
98
perjoration
a word of neutral significance takes on a negative meaning
99
reappropriation
a historically derogatory word is claimed/reclaimed by a community that has been oppressed or stigmatized by that word
100
conversation analysis
examines structure of conversation
101
turn
basic unit of conversation
102
conversational floor
negotiation of turns as speakers give up the conversational floor
103
interruptions
(& overlap) attempt by speakers to take the floor
only interruptions are a turn-taking violation
104
speech act theory
works from the premises that language performs actions
when we speak we are "doing things" not just tallking about them
105
locutionary act
the production of the sounds & words that make up an utterancce & its referential meaning
106
illocutionary act
the intended meaning of the utterance that an utterance is understood to have
107
representatives (assertives)
represent a state of affairs
108
directivves
designed to get the addressee to do something
109
commissives
designed to the speaker to do something
110
expressives
express the mental state of the speaker
111
declarations
bring about the state of affairs to which they refer
112
verdictives
pass judgement
113
prelocutionary act
the effect achieved by an utterance on the hearer
114
direct speech act
when the form of the locutionary act corrresponds directly w/ the illocutionary act
115
indirect speech act
invlolve intended meanings different from the locutionary act or literal meaning of the words
116
performative speech acts
utterances that accompllish the acts they describe just by being uttered
"I dub you Sir Harry Potter"
117
cooperative principle
in conversation, the principle that participants will cooperate w/ one another, especially that they will observe the conversational maxims
118
maxims of quantity
make your contribution as informative as required
do not make your contributiuon more informative than is required
119
maxims of quality
do not say what you believe to be false
do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence
120
maxim of relation
be relevant
121
maxims of manner
avoid obscurity of expression
avoid ambiguity
be brief
be orderly
122
entailment
logical relationship between a statement & the conditions on which it is true
"not everyone did well on this quiz"
any number takings the quiz performed poorly
at least one person did less than well (whatever that means)
some students did poorly
123
implicature
meaning implied in additon to the truth-conditional meaning of a proposition
124
face
conversational persona responsible for politeness toward others & receiving others' politeness
125
negative face
desire to be unimpeded in one's actions which in part determines conversational politeness
126
positive face
desire to be approved of or liked by other participants in conversation which in part determines conversational politeness
127
face-threatening act
any utterance that challenges the level of politeness in conversation
128
negative politeness
respecting another's negative face, especially by using markers of deference, apology, etc
129
positive politeness
enhancing the positive face of others in conversation
by means of compliments & other markers of friendliness
130
discourse markers
defined at the seemingly meaningless elements that tend to occur in spoken language that carry out pragmatic functions rather than convey semantic or truth-conditional meaning
signal to the reader how to understand an utterance in relation to the utterances that precede & follow it
how to understand the utterance in the context of the relationship being negotiated between the speaker & the listener
now, so, well, and, I mean, however, then, you know
can be adverbs, interjections, verbs, conj
131
indexical meaning
meaning within discourse that depends on context outside the discourse
including social circumstances & the construction or maintenance of social identities
132
stylistics
the study of language & craft in lit, ads, letters, lyrics, & so no
133
genre
types of texts that tend to occur in or are associated with specific contexts or social occasions
134
register
varieties of a language defined by use
135
abstract
short intro summary of what happened or an overview statement that captures the interest of the narrative
136
orientation
background info that clarifies setting & characters of a narrative
137
complicating action
moment(s) in the ordering of a narrative when "something happens" or the situation changes
138
evaluation
comments throughout a narrative that address why it is interesting
139
resolution
closing material about what finally happens in a narrative
140
coda
a final summary or comment that may provide a moral or lesson or connect the narrative to the context in which it's told
141
cohesion
describes the set of linguistic features or forms that create ties across sentences& thereby joining them into text
142
reference
depend on antecedents for their interpretation
exophoric
endophoric
143
ellipsis
leaving out something mentioned earlier
who saw the tooth fair? Bob
144
substitution
rather than completely leaving out the info, a 'holding item' like "so" or "one" or "do" is inserted
who took out the garbage? she did
145
conjunction
through the use of a conjunctive-adverbial, a prep phrase, or a conj, a logical-semantic relationship is expressed between the 2 sentences
146
elaboration
material is either re presented or clarified
147
extension
material is added or qualified
148
enhancement
material is related in terms of time, space, manner, or cause
149
lexical cohesion
ties parts of a text to one another principally through the following means
repetition of words across sentences
use of synonyms to create semantic connections
use collocations
150
meter
patterned arrangement of words in poetry
according to stress, number of syllables, vowel length
151
prosody
distribution of intonation & stress or systematic arrangement of intonation & stress in poetry
152
rhyme
correspondence of word-final sounds generally but especially among poetic lines or parts of those lines
153
onomatopoeia
creation or use of words w/ sounds that imitate those associated w/ things to which they refer
buzz gasp
154
frontal lobe
some language & some motor functions
155
parietal lobe
bodily sensations such as touch, pain, & temp
156
occipital lobe
vision
157
temporal lobe
learning & aspects of memory storage
158
critical age hypothesis
there is a period of growth in which full native competence is possible when acquiring a language
language learning is most fully realized before a speaker reaches puberty
Genie - she learned some language but will never be able to fully learn all aspects
159
Broca's aphasia
affects language production more than language comprehension
160
Wernicke's aphasia
fluency of their speech production is not impaired, but their ability to create meaningful utterances is
161
dialect
a variety of language spoken by a group of people that is systematically different from other varieties of the language in terms of structural or lexical features
162
accent
systematic phonological variation among dialects
163
overt prestige
refers to the more widely recognized value given to standards that supposedly transcend conditions like pace or social status
164
covert prestige
refers to the value that nonstandard varieties carry within specific communities
165
major factors in language variation within speech communities
age
gender
social networks
race & ethnicity
socioeconomic class
geography
166
perceptual dialectology
study of how speakers perceive variation
167
basilect
the dialect variety with the most creole features
168
acrolect
the dialect variety closest to the lexifier language (languages from which the bulk of the vocab comes)
169
mesolects
dialect in between basilect & acrolect
170
retention
speakers bring features of their original dialects/languages w/ them at emigration/migration
171
naturally occuring internal language change
some regional features result from the ongoing variation & change that occurs within any speech community
form first occurs in a locality or region & is maintained there
may then spread to other regions or remain a more localized form
172
language contact
speakers of a variety encounter speakers of another language & contact w/ this other language affects the dialect
borrowing
structural influence
173
coining
speakers create new words or phrases to name something previously unknown to them
174
social factors
speech communities may adopt or retain specific features in relation to their social significance
175
ablaut
change in vowel sound that indicated tense in English "strong verbs"
sing, sang, sung
176
what reflects the development in the Early Modern English period
the universalization of the 3rd person singular '-s' in present tense verbs
177
middle english is characterized by 2 major trends
english gradually lost inflectional endings due to phonological change in unstressed syllables
english gradually developed form synthetic to analytic syntax due to erosion among old english inflections
178
inner circle
countries where the dominant language is english
179
outer circle
countries where english is an official language or an important "second language"
180
expanding circle
countries where english takes on a central role as a foreign language taught in the schools, given its international role
