Final Flashcards
First impressions
We form Schemas quickly & automatically with the information available to us
Key characteristics when forming impressions
Trustworthiness/Warmth (friend or foe?). Competence/dominance (social status?). Elderly person –> low competence, high warmth, so we feel protective of them. A Homeless person –> low competence, low trustworthiness, we feel disdain. Charming Successful CEO –> high competence, high trustworthiness, we admire them.
Primacy Effect
Cognitive bias that influences how people process and remember information. Information presented first often has a disproportionately significant impact on perceptions or memory compared to information presented later.
How accurate are our impressions?
Impressions from faces: generally, inferred emotional expression, not very accurate.
Impressions from other sources: still not very accurate, can be somewhat accurate at judgements of what people are generally like (i.e. Extroversion).
Early studies showing we are capable of making accurate impressions: Ambady & Rosenthal (1992):
Thin slicing: we can make quick and accurate judgments even with very little exposure. However, this requires more effort & deliberate processing. Susceptible to bias.
What improves the accurace of our impressions?
Updating impressions as we get to know a person. When we are motivated, and put effort into being accurate. (i.e., when there are consequences).
Some factors that limit our accuracy in impression formation
Heuristics, Impression management, confirmation bias.
Heuristics
A quick mental shortcut to get an impression of someone.
Transference (Heuristics)
Applying the schema of someone you already know to understand someone new. (You meet someone that reminds you of a friend you like –> shift the positive feelings of the friend to this new person)
False Consensus (Heuristics)
Assuming everyone is the same as us, especially people we know and like. (Your friend posted a political statement that you disagree with and you’re shocked.)
Impression Management.
Putting our best face forward. People can use a variety of strategies to manage the impression that others have of them. Examples: self-promotion (competent), ingratiation (likeable), exemplification (dedicated), intimidation (domination), supplication (needy).
Confirmation Bias
We are eager to verify our beliefs but less inclined to seek evidence that might disprove them. The tendency to seek out and prefer information that supports our preexisting beliefs.
Attributions
Explanations we assign to the causes of an event, action, or outcome.
Attribution Theory
Analyzes how we explain people’s behaviour. Dispositions/Internal factors: such as traits, values, attitudes, beliefs, skills, intentions. Situations/External factors: events, weather, aspects of a context, circumstances, other people’s actions, accidents, chance.
Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)
When explaining the cause of another person’s behaviour, we tend to: Overestimate - the impact of internal/dispositional influences. Understimate - the impact of external/situational influences. The default explanation tends to be an internal attribution, in Western Individualistic culture.
Cultural Variation: FAE (individualistic cultures)
USA, Canada, Netherlands, Australia. Tend to put an emphases on independence, uniqueness, sufficiency. Therefore, they tend to commit FAE by not considering external factors.
Cultural Variation: FAE (collectivistic cultures)
China, Japan, Latin America, Eastern Europe. Tend to value community, needs of the group over the individual. Tend to be more sensitive to situational constraints and how people might adjust to meet the environmental situation. Therefore, they tend to commit FAE much less on average.
Self-Serving Bias
Tendency to explain our success with internal factors and to explain our failures with external factors.
Stereotypes
Mental beliefs/schemas/associations we have about groups. Automatic associations. These are associations and not judgments. Not always negative, can be positive or neutral. Learned & Perpetuated from our own personal culture and environment we group up in. Causes of inaccuracy: bias in the media, applying group characteristics to an individual.
Prejudice
Attitudes or affective (emotional) responses toward or about a group and/or its individual members, these are negative. Bias against a person based on their perceived group.
Discrimination
Negative behaviours directed against people because of their group membership; differential treatment. Often steming from prejudice attitudes.
Social categorization
Humans naturally categorize the world into different social groups based on a shared characteristic(s) or common attributes. (Race, gender, age, height, sports teams, shared beliefs, personal preferences, hobbies). Saves time and mental energy. Simplifies our otherwise chaotic environment. Often is accurate, and useful if you have no other info about a person.
In/Out Groups
In-groups: the groups we belong to. Female, student, Gen Z. Out-group: other groups we don’t belong to. Men, non-students, any other generation.
Social Categorization Costs
With categories in place this can lead to: applying stereotypes to these groups, in/out-group division or “Us vs Them” mentality.
In-group facoritism
Our group is better than theirs
Out-group derogation
we hate/dislike them
Overestimating group differences
They are not like us
Out-group homogeneity effect
They are all alike; we are unique and diverse
Contact hypothesis (Allport, 1954)
Reduction of prejudice through friendly contact. But contact alone is not enough. This led to Sherif’s idea of’ Superordinate goals.
Superordinate goals:
Goals that are so large they require more than one social group to complete
Realistic conflict theory (Robbers Cave Study)
This theory suggests that when groups perceive that their interests are in direct conflict or competition with the interests of another group, it can lead to negative attitudes, hostility, and discriminatory behavior between the groups.Groups competing for access to the same resources (land, water, food, championships etc.)
Social Identity Theory
A person’s positive self-view extends to their ingroup(s), i.e., in-group favouritism. Seeing outgroups in a negative light i.e., out-group derogation.
Overt vs Symbolic Racism
Overt: hate crimes, racial slurs, swastikas.
Symbolic: indirect forms of discrimination, such as social policies.
Explicit Attitudes
Conscious reporting of how we feel or believe. Can be updated easily be learning new information. Measurement: commonly measured via self-report questionnaires using Likert scales, but people might be unwilling or unable to tell the truth.
Implicit attitudes.
Automatic, unconscious/not aware of it reporting. Can potentially be updated with repeated exposure, but it is difficult. Measurement: indirectly via facial expressions, body language, implicit association tests.
Do attitudes influence behaviour?
Attitudes can have consequences on behaviour. But studies show attitudes have a weak link to behaviour. E.g. Abstract attitudes. i
When are attitudes most likely to predict behaviour?
When they are about a specific issue. When they are strong attitudes –> when we are certain about them (i.e. attitude strength) and they apply to situations with which we have experience (personal link).
Elaboration likelihood model
Central route: more thoughtful (more effort) –> choosing a new laptop based on stats, expert reviews. Peripheral route: more impressionable. –> choosing a new laptop based on factors such as its looks or brand.
Central route
Persuasive message: Audience (motivated, analystical) –> Processing (high effert; evaluate message) –> Persuasion (lasting change in attitude).
Peripheral Route
Persuasive message: Audience (not motivated, not analytical) –> Processing (low effort; persuaded by cues outside of message) –> Persuasion (temporary change in attitude).
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Disconnect between our actions and attitude = inner tension/dissonance. The more significant the discrepancy, the more we feel the dissonance. We are motivated to reduce the tension.
Post Decision Dissonance
Discomfort from believing there might have been a better option that what we choose. Gave
Social norms
Behaviours, traditions, beliefs and preferences. Commonly accepted and reinforced, change and evolve over time, not adhering to social norms can result in a “faux pas”.
Social influence
The way that people are affected by the real and imagined presence of others.
Social loafing
Not pulling your weight, individual efforts will not be evaluated. Group projects where by everyone gets one grade.
Social Facilitation
Working towards a goal where individual efforts are evaluated.
Conformity
Changing our perceptions, opinions, or behaviour in ways that are consistent with group norms.
Compliance
Changing our behaviour in response to direct requests
Obedience
Changing our behaviour in response to commands by perceived authority figures.
Informational social influence
Pressure to conform because we ant to be competent and have the correct information.
Normative social influence
Pressure to conform so that we gain approval/fit and not be met with disapproval.
The Stanley Milgram “Experiments”
To what extent would people comply when there are demands of authority? Recruited participants who were told this was a study on learning and punishment. Participant: would take the role of teacher, and was told to teach a list of pairs of words and punish wrong answer with a “mild shock”. Confederate: would take the role of “learner” and strapped into a chair that had pretend electrodes. Scripted responses from learner and experimenter. Experimenter would tell the participant to move up one shock level every time the confederate got an answer wrong. If the participant complied they would hear increasing distressing grunts and cries of pain from the confederate.
What people predicted from the Stanley Milgram effect
That participants would stop around 150 volts, and fewer than 1% would go all the way to max shock
Results from The Stanley Milgram Experiments
All 40 participants: at least 300v
26/40 experiments: (65%) All the way
The Stanley Milgram Experiments, further modifications
Milgram was disturbed by the results, so he decided to keep modifying: stated that the learner had a hart condition - 63% still complied, least compassionate when the learner could not be seen, when the learner could not be seen or head almost all participants obeyed till the end, when the learner was in the room 40% went to the end, when the participant had to put the learners hand on a shock plat 30% went to the end.
Modern replication “Burger study”
Recent replication achieved a 90% obedience rate in the presence of authority.
Instrumental Agression
Proactive aggression. Goal is to achieve something (social, emotional, physical). A means to an end - harmful behaviour as a purpose to it. I.e., War.
Hostile Aggression
Reactive aggression. Motivated by hostility. The goal is to harm someone. Emotional, impulsive, in the heat of the moment. Can also been calm and cool. I.e., Murder, road rage.
Theories of Aggression - Gender
Men: more likely to use direct aggression.
Women: more likely to use indirect or passive forms of aggression (this could be due to socialization).
Theories of aggression: Neural influences
Complicated behaviour, no one area controls it. There are neural systems, activation causes hostility increase and vice versa.
Theories of aggression: Environmental influences
Painful incidents, heat/hot weather, crowding, social provocation, social learning
Prosocial Behaviour
Actions that are intended to help others.
Altruism
Concern for others. Doing something to help others without expecting anything in return. (donate money, give blood, volunteer time). Debate about whether pure altruism is possible. (it feels good to help, empathy for others being sad, which makes us sad).
Altruism in animals
Monkeys refused a machine that gave them food if it shocked another monkey.
Reciprocal altruism
Actions that help others, even if there is a risk, with the idea that it may be repaid in the future.
Norm of reciprocity
States that we tend to automatically help those who have helped us before.
Bystander Effect
The presence of others inhibiting helping behaviours.
Diffusion of responsibility
First explanation for the bystander effect. People in a group assume someone else has acted or someone else might be more skilled to do so.
Pluralistic Ignorance
Second explanation for the bystander effect. People are unaware of others’ true beliefs, or misinterpret social cues.
Overcoming Bystander Effect
If one person takes action, the “spell” can be broke.
Mere exposure effect
students rated stimuli higher after seeing them repeatedly (familiarity)
Factors influencing liking/attraction
Mere exposure effect, similarity (we like others who are similar to us), reciprocity, physical attraction.
Halo Effect
What is beautiful is good. A belief that beautiful people also posses positive qualities. (intelligent, better personalities, etc).
Attachment Theory
As a survival instinct, human babies develop strong enduring emotional bonds with parents or caregivers (very dependent as infants). Children develop internal working models of how relationships develop. This in turn, affects Attachment styles or how we interact with someone close to us.
Attachment Styles: Secure
Worthy of love, viewing others as trustworthy, comfortable with intimacy. Positive beliefs about ones self and others.
Attachment Styles: Anxious/Ambivalent
Passionate about relationship. Prone to jealousy or anger due to underlying anxiety. Negative beliefs about ones self and positive view of others.
Attachment Styles: Avoidant
Self confident, weary of getting too close or dependent to others, general mistrust of others. Positive view of self, negative view of others.
Personality
Stable way of thinking, feeling, and acting. (stable cognitions, emotions, and behaviours).
Historical Approaches - Bumps
Phrenology: Judging character by reading “bumps” on the head. Gall argued that skull bumps were a sign of specific brain enlargements.
Psychograph
A machine meant to measure bumps on the head and give ratings for each of the 35 personality categories from the brain map.
Historical Approaches - Blots
In contrast to objective tests, which are often obvious about what is being studied, projective tests were used to uncover hidden thought processes. (Rorschach Ink blot. Draw a person, Person-House-Tree. Thematic Apperception Test).
Historical Approaches - Bodies: Fluid types theory
Temperament related to four bodily fluids: Sanguine - excess of blood = vigor and athleticism. Choleric - excess of urine = easily angered. Melancholic: excess of feces = depressed or sad. Phlegmatic - excess of mucus = tired or lazy.
Historical Approaches - Bodies: Body somatotypes theories
Endomorph: overweight = jolly, extraverted, slow. Mesomorph: muscular = athletic, aggressive. Ectomorph: skinny = thinking, withdrawn, fearful.
Freud’s three levels of awareness
- The conscious mind: what you are presently aware of, what you are thinking about right now.
- The preconscious mind: stored in your memory that you are not presently aware of but you can gain access to.
- The unconscious mind: the part of our mind that we cannot become aware of. It contains the primary motivations for all of our actions and feelings.
The Id
The “original personality”, the only part present at birth and the part the other two parts of our personality grow out of. Is entirely unconscious. Includes our biological instinctual drives, the primitive parts of our personality located in our unconscious.
The Ego
Starts developing during the first year or so of life to find realistic and socially-acceptable outlets for the id’s needs. Operates on the reality principle; finding gratification for instinctual drives within the constraints of reality. Part of ego is unconscious, and part is preconscious and conscious.
The Superego
Represents one’s conscience and idealized standards of behaviour in their culture. Operates on a morality principle, threatening to overwhelm us with guilt and shame. The demands of the superego and the id will come into conflict and the ego will have to resolve this turmoil within the constraints of reality. To prevent being overcome with anxiety because of trying to satisfy the id and superego demands, the ego uses what Freud called defence mechanisms, processes that distort reality and protect us from anxiety.
Pleasure Principle of Id
The Id demands immediate gratification for our biological instinctual drives without the concern for the consequences of this gratification.
Unhealthy Personalities
Unhealthy personality develops when:
- we become too dependent upon defence mechanisms
- when the id or superego is too strong (overly hedonic or overly moralistic)
- when the ego is too weak (bad mediator)
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
An erogenous zone: area of the body where the id’s pleasure-seeking psychic energy is focused during a particular stage of psychosexual development. Fixation occurs when a portion of the id’s pleasure-seeking energy remains in a stage because of excessive gratification or frustration.
Anal-retentive personality
Parents try to get the child to have self-control during toilet training. The child reacts to harsh toilet training by trying to get even with the parents by withholding bowel movements. Traits of orderliness, neatness, stinginess, and stubbornness develops.
Anal-expulsive
Parents try to get the child to have self-control during toile training. This personality develops when the child rebels against the harsh training and has bowel movements whenever and wherever they desire.
Phallic Stage Conflicts
In the Oedipus conflict, the little boy becomes sexually attracted to his mother and fears that his father (his rival) will find out and castrate him. In the Electra conflict, the little girl is attracted to her father because he has a penis; she wants one of her own and feels inferior without one (penis envy).
Neo-Freudian Theories of Personality
Agree with many of Freud’s basic ideas, but differ in one or more important ways. Carl Jung’s Collective Unconscious, Alfred Adler’s Striving for Superiority, Karen Horney and the Need for Security.
Carl Jung’s Collective Unconscious
Represents universal human experiences that we all share. These experiences are manifested in archetypes, which are images and symbols of all the important themes in the history of humankind. Archetypes represent personality styles –> each has one primary desire. Notions of collective unconscious and archetypes are more mystical than scientific and cannot be empirically tested.
Alfred Adler’s Striving for Superiority
The main motivation is “striving for superiority” - to overcome the sense of inferiority that we feel as infants. A healthy person learns to cope with these feelings, becomes competent, and develops a sense of self-esteem. Inferiority complex is the strong feeling of inferiority felt by those who never overcome this initial feeling of inferiority.
Karen Horney and The Need for Security
Focused on dealing with our need for security, rather than a sense of inferiority. A child’s caregivers must provide a sense of security for a healthy personality to develop or else neurotic personality types will develop.
Three neurotic personality patterns (Karen Horney)
Moving toward people: a compliant, submissive person. Moving against people: an aggressive, domineering person. Moving away from people: a detached, aloof person.
Humanistic Approach
Emphasizes conscious free will in one’s actions, the uniqueness of the individual person, and personal growth.
Humanistic Theories
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is an arrangement of the innate needs that motivate our behaviour. Strongest needs at the bottom of the pyramid to the weakest need at the top of the pyramid.
Maslow’s Self-Actualization
Characteristics of self-actualized people (who have met all their needs) include:
- Accepting of themselves, others, and the nature of world for what they are.
- Being independent, democratic, and very creative.
- Having peak experiences, which are experiences of deep insight, wonder, awe, or ecstasy.
Roger’s Self Theory
This theory focuses on the individual’s experience and emphasizes the importance of personal growth, self-actualization, and the therapeutic relationship.
Unconditional positive regard (roger’s self theory)
Acceptance and approval without conditions. Empathy from others, and having others be genuine with respect to their own feelings, is necessary if we are to feel self-actualized.
The “Big 5” personality traits
Modern personality research argues for 5 basic personality traits (OCEAN).
1. Openness: whether a person is open to new experiences.
2. Conscientiousness: whether a person is disciplined and responsible.
3. Extroversion: whether a person is sociable, outgoing and affectionate.
4. Agreeableness: whether a person is cooperative, trusting, and helpful.
5. Neuroticism: whether a person is unstable and prone to negative emotions and insecurity.
Personality Disorders: Prevalence
the proportion of a particular condition or characteristic within a specific population at a given point in time.Around 9-15% of the general population. Prevalence of individual PDs is around 1-5%.
Personality Disorders: Comorbidity
Very high among PDs. People with a PD have an average of 6 comorbid PDs. Comorbidity with other disorders is also very high.
Personality Disorders: Sex/Age Differences
Prevalence is generally higher among women. Depends on the PD. Higher in Men: antisocial PD, narcissistic PD. Higher in women: dependent, histrionic, borderline. Could be due to gender bias in the diagnosis of PDs. PDs most prevalent in early/midlife. Women and men roughly equal in older age.
Personality Disorder’s: 4 General Criteria
4 general criteria for PDs:
A. A pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from expectations of the individual’s culture in at least 2 of the following areas: cognition, affect, social, impulse control.
B. This pattern is inflexible and pervasive across different situations.
C. It causes clinically significant distress or impairment.
D. The pattern is stable and it has early onset (traced back to at least adolescence or early adulthood).
The 10 DSM Disorders
Cluster A - Odd/Eccentric
- Paranoid
- Schizoid
- Schizotypal
Cluster B - Dramatic/Erratic
- Antisocial
- Borderline
- Histrionic
- Narcissistic
Cluster C - Anxious/Fearful
- Avoidant
- Dependent
- Obsessive-compulsive
A - Paranoid PD
Pervasive suspiciousness and distrust of others. Tendency to see self as blameless. On guard for perceived attacks/betrayal by others. Hostile world attribution bias. Reads hidden insults in benign remarks. Holds on to a grudge. Recurrent suspicions bout fidelity of partner/spouse.
A - Schizoid PD
Pervasive detachment from social relationships. Low pleasure. Flat emotional expressions. Preference for solitary activities. Few friends/family. Indifferent to praise or criticism.
A - Schizotypal PD
Interpersonal problems. Eccentric/odd. Strange beliefs. Unusual perceptions. Inappropriate affect. Lack of close friends. Extreme social anxiety. Believe they have magic powers or engage in magic rituals.
B - Antisocial PD
Violate others’ rights, aggressive, impulsive, illegal behaviours, irritable/angry, deceitful, lack of remorse.
B - Borderline PD
Unstable emotions, relationships, identify. Impulsive behaviour. Feelings of emptiness. Flash anger. Recurrent suicidal behaviours, gestures, or threats.
B - Histrionic PD
Excessive attention-seeking behaviour. Excessive emotionality. Dramatic/theatrical. Center of attention. Uses physical appearance to draw attention.
B - Narcissistic PD
Grandiosity. Preoccupied with unlimited success. Requires excessive admiration. Sense of entitlement. Exploits others. Believes others envy them. Lacks empathy.
C - Avoidant PD
Extreme social avoidance, introversion, loneliness. Do not want to be alone but fears socializing. Feels socially inadequate.
C - Dependent PD
Extreme need to be taken care of. Clingy and submissive behaviour. Lack of self-confidence. Constant helplessness. Needs a lot of advice and reassurance.
C - Obsessive-Compulsive PD
Perfectionism, excessive concern for order and control, preoccupied with rules, rigid and stubborn, devoted to work, does not trust others to do work and takes control.
Psychopathy Checklist Factor 1 - Affective/Interpersonal Components
Glib and Superficial Charm. Grandiose Self-worth. Pathological Lying. Conning and Manipulative. Lack of Remorse or Guilt. Shallow Affect. Callousness or Lack of Empathy. Failure to Accept Responsibility. Many Short-term Marital Relationships. Promiscuity.
Psychopathy Checklist Factor 2 - Impulsive/Antisocial Components
Parasitic Lifestyle. Poor Behavioural Controls. Early Behavioural Problems. Lack of Realistic Long-tern Goals. Need for Stimulation. Impulsivity. Irresponsibility. Juvenile Delinquency. Revocation of Conditional Release. Criminal Versatility.
Psychopathy versus Antisocial Personality Disorder
Psychopathy: Factor 1 - sometimes referred to as the primary essence of psychopathy. Factor 2 - ASPD.
PDs: Diagnostic Problems
Is it every right to say someone’s personality is disordered? Culture and norms are extremely important. Extremely high comorbidity –> are PDs even distinct constructs? Stigma is a big issue –> PDs end up on permanent record. Not otherwise specified is most common PD diagnosis –> problems with coverage? Polythetic criteria –> e.g. 4/8 symptoms required for a PD means 2 people could have same PD but share no symptoms.
4 Ds of Psychopathology.
Deviance: behaviours, thoughts, feelings that are not in line with normal or usually accepted standards.
Distress: behaviours, thoughts, and feelings that are upsetting and cause pain, suffering, and sorrow.
Dysfunction: thoughts, behaviours and feelings that are disruptive to one’s regular routine or interfere with day-to-day functioning.
Danger: thoughts, behaviours and feelings may lead to harm or injury to self or others.
Abnormality
It is hard to define. Psychologists and psychiatrists use a specific system to classify abnormality. Is still a topic of controversy.
The biopsychosocial model
Psychological disorders result from an interaction between biological factors, psychological experiences, and one’s social environment.
DSM Classification
The DSM lists the symptoms of each disorder and, when possible, gives information about: the age of onset, predisposing and risk factors, course of the disorder, prevalence rates, gender differences, cultural considerations for diagnosis, differential diagnosis. Presentations are heterogeneous.
Problems with the DSM
The diagnosis of mental disorders is a subjective process that relies on self-report. No biomarkers for mental disorders exist. The DSM may encourage over diagnosis. Consider everyday problems of living as serious mental disorders. Uses a categorical approach. Does not appropriately account for comorbidity.
Ethical issues with the DSM
Gender Identity Disorder renamed to Gender Dysphoria in the DSM-5. Maintained in the DSM to allow transgender individuals to be financially covered for the services they need. Subjectivity in the inclusion or exclusion of a condition.
Panic Disorder
Unexpected panic attacks: abrupt surge of fear. Concern and worry about additional attacks or their consequences.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Continuous and chronic anxiety and worry that is hard to control and interferes with functioning. Belief in the benefits of worry. Persistent for 6 months.
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
Recurrent, unwanted thoughts or images. Though-action fusion. Repetitive, ritualized behaviours that a person feels unable to control. Magical thinking. Some people may have abnormalities in the prefrontal cortex that may contribute to cognitive and behavioural rigidity. Parts of the brain involved in fear and responses to threat are also more active.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Most people who live through a traumatic experience eventually recover, but a minority develop PTSD which involves: intrusive symptoms and memories, avoidance of external reminders of the event and feelings associated with the event, negative alterations in mood and cognitions, altered arousal and reactivity. Risk factors: general vulnerability, a history of psychological problems, tendency to avoid unwanted thoughts, a lack of social and cognitive resources.
Depressive Disorders
Persistent depressed mood and/or lack of interest/pleasure in activities accompanied by: change in sleep, change in appetite, change in the speed of movement, loss of energy, diminished ability to concentrate, indecisiveness, feelings of worthlessness and guilt, recurrent thoughts of death, causing significant stress or impairment in functioning.
Origins and Theories of Depression
Vulnerability-stress models of depression highlight interactions between individual vulnerabilities and stressful experiences. Depression has a genetic component, and the search for specific genes continues. Studies of serotonin are inconclusive, and their findings are not well replicated. Stressful life events.
Attributional Theory of Depression
Negative events attributed to causes that are: Internal (vs external), stable (vs temporary), global (vs specific).
Rumination
Focusing repetitively and passively on the symptoms of distress and on the possible causes and consequences of distress.
Gender Differences in Depression
Gender differences in cognitive style (attributional sylte, rumination, negative cognitions about attractiveness). Gender socialization (stronger interpersonal engagement, stronger engagement with feelings). Genetic Factors. Hormonal Levels.
Bipolar Disorder I
At least one manic episode, no major depressive is required
Bipolar Disorder II
At least one hypomanic episode and one major depressive episode is required.
Mania in Bipolar Disorders
Characterized by abnormally elevated or irritable mood, accompanied by increased activity or energy.
Schizophrenia positive symptoms
Behaviours that were not present prior to begin of disorder. Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, abnormal motor behaviours.
Schizophrenia Negative symptoms
Behaviours that were lost since onset of disorder. Loss of motivation to take care of oneself (avolition). Flat or blunted affect. Reduced speech production (alogia). Asociality.l
Origins of Schizophrenia
Childhood or past trauma. It involves certain structural brain abnormalities. These include enlarged ventricles and neurotransmitter abnormalities.
Psychodynamic Therapy
Rooted in Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory. Analyzing unconscious processes through different methods (free association, daydreams, dreams).
Current psychodynamic psychotherapy
Focuses on how repressed emotions influence current behaviours and thoughts. Identifies recurrent themes and patterns in thoughts, feelings, relationships. Focuses on interpersonal relationships (object relations, attachment). Has a developmental focus.
Person-Centered Therapy
Based on humanistic psychology. Three basic components:
1. Unconditional positive self-regard
2. Empathy
3. Congruence (genuineness; authenticity).
No hierarchy between client and therapist. Non-directive. The goal of the treatment is to increase the insight of the patients.
Three waves of behaviour therapy
First Wave: classic behavioural therapies.(classical and operant conditioning; systematic desensitization. Focus is on behaviours, not thoughts).
Second Wave: Incorporation of cognitions. (Rise of mainline cognitive-behavioural therapy).
Third Wave: Less about change and more about acceptance. (acceptance and commitment therapy, mindfulness-based cognitive behavioural therapy, dialectical behavioural therapy).
Examples of Cognitive Distortions
All or nothing thinking.Over-generalizing. Mental filter. Disqualifying the positive. Jumping to conclusions. Emotional reasoning. Magnification & minimization. Labelling. Personalization.
Behavioural Activation
Aims to increase engagement in adaptive activities and decrease engagement in activities that maintain depressive symptoms. Examples: going to a movie, jogging, buying gifts, reading. Use worksheets to keep track of how you feel before and after each activity.
Behavioural Therapy - exposure
Operates according to the principles of Pavlovian extinction, the fearful stimulus gets presented without the negative reinforcer that client expects. Focus is on exposure to feared stimuli without engaging in safety behaviours.
Acceptance & Commitment Therapy
Focuses on approaching negative thoughts and feelings in mind with acceptance and without hanging on to thoughts, where as CBT focuses on disputing thoughts.
Components of ACT
Acceptance, Cognitive De-fusion, Self as Context, Being Present, Values, Committed Action.
The Dodo Bird Effect
Test whether all therapies are relatively equally efficacious. Null hypothesis: If Dodo bird conjecture is true, effect sizes will be roughly equivalent. Alternative hypothesis: if Dodo bird conjecture is false, effect sizes will not be homogenous. Result: effect sizes very similar, null hypothesis was not rejected. Conclusion: all therapies seem to be similarly effective.
Cognitive Restructuring
Using a CBT Thought Record
