Final Flashcards
What is empiricism?
An explanation of phenomena using observations to judge the tenability of those explanations. Empiricists demand that data and observations support whatever hypothesis is being put forward.
What are alternatives to empiricism?
Revelation, subjective belief, lived experience (why should I care about this?), coercion (coercion triggers counter coercion), and traditions (which traditions should be trusted and respected?)
What is the principle of verification?
Statements can be provisionally accepted only to the extent that they are derived from observational evidence.
What is a theory?
A body of statements that systematizes knowledge and explains relationships between phenomena. Can be generated by induction or deduction
What is the independent variable?
A variable, denoted by x, whose variation does not depend on another variable. Is manipulated by the researcher.
What is a dependent variable?
A variable, denoted by y, whose value depends on the independent variable.
What is a causal mechanism?
The process that, logically speaking, suggests x might be the cause of y.
Why do we need causal mechanisms? Why is prediction not sufficient?
In science, we want to uncover why/how questions, not simply recognizing patterns.
What is a spurious correlation?
A non-causal correlation between two variables
What is the inductive logic of confirmation?
Logical empiricists and positivists tried to solve the demarcation problem- what makes science different from non-science-by focusing on meaning by coming up with a logic of confirmation, by trying to distinguish meaningful and meaningless statements.
What is falsifiability?
Theories in empirical sciences cannot be proved conclusively true the same way mathematical theorems can, no matter how many test agree with a theory’s predictions. A claim that can be refuted by science
What is the relationship between the principle of falsifiability and probabilistic theories?
If a theory is probabilistic, then particular anomalies will not prove it wrong, but they can still be falsifiable. Ex. The South tends to be more conservative than the North, but there are liberals in the South and conservatives in the North.
What is Popper’s argument about falsifiability and theory selection?
Popper argued that it is never possible to confirm a theory by showing its agreement with observations. A theory can never be proven true, even a billion confirmations count for nothing. Theories can never be confirmed to any degree to Popper, so there was no difference between theories that had gone through rigorous testing. Popper talks about corroboration to differentiate theories that have passed tests, but how is that different from confirmation?
What is a normative theory?
A theory/statement that is about what ought to be. They are outside the purview of science, they may rely on science and conform to the rules of logic, but they are not science.
What is induction?
Drawing general conclusions from specific observations and examples.
What is deduction?
Drawing conclusions based on on general principles and assumptions
What is transmissibility?
Anybody who follows the same procedures should get the same results. Credibility does not depend on individual scientist’s objectivity and credibility. It is ensured by data access, production transparency, analytic transparency, peer review, institutional skepticism, freedom of academic inquiry, tenure, and the celebration of novelty.
What is cumulativity?
Substantial findings and research methods should build upon prior research and findings
What is generality?
Knowledge that explains classes of events is more valuable than knowledge that explains a specific one.
What is parsimony?
The same as Occom’s razor, the simplest explanation tends to be correct, no logical justification, but simpler explanations tend to be true.
What is rationality?
The ability to use knowledge to attain goals. Knowledge is justified true belief, and beliefs must be held in pursuit of a goal. Rational agents should use whatever knowledge is applicable in the circumstances.
What is substantive vs procedural in terms of rationality?
Rationality doesn’t say anything about the rationality or irrationality of substantive preferences, it is a procedural concept.
What are the axioms of rationality?
Completeness, transitivity (if a>b, and b>c, then a>c), Beliefs must be updated according to the Bayes rule.
Why should we use reason?
When you demand justification for using reason, you have already conceded the game to reason. You cannot escape it if you want to answer the question. Using reason works. Beliefs justified by rational reasoning have a better chance of getting us to knowledge.
What are the alternatives to reason?
Revelation/subjective belief/lived experience, coercion, tradition.
What is subjectivism?
The belief that everything is subjective and every truth claim is relative. Are those statements subjective and relative? Is anything a fact of subjective reality?
What is epistemological relativism or standpoint epistemology?
Positive, epistemological claims that are fundamentally at odds with each other can both be true. Related to standpoint epistemology, whcih is placing lived experience above verifiable evidence.
