Final

Question 1

Function of emotions

Answer 1

Functional approach: to help people adapt to their environment, centers heavier around a goal (ex. Avoiding fear)
Adaptive approach: to meet unique life challenges and to help humans survive (ex. avoiding gross things that may kill us)

Question 2

Basic emotions

Answer 2

Emotions that are experienced by people worldwide ans consist of a subjective feeling, a physiological change and an overt behavior
Includes happiness, anger and fear
~6m is when babes fully experience

Question 3

Social smiles

Answer 3

Smiles from infants when they see another person
~2m

Question 4

Stranger wariness

Answer 4

Infants apparent concern or anxiety in the presence of an unfamiliar adult
~6m
-increases over the first 2 years

Question 5

Complex emotions

Answer 5

Responses to meeting or failing to meet expectations/standards
Includes “self-conscious” emotions: pride, guilt, embarrassment
~18-24m
-Depend on child’s understanding of self (~15-18m)

Question 6

Complex emotions- later development

Answer 6

Include relief+ regret
-children 5-6y can experience these feelings
-can experience complex emotions based on environmental contexts

Question 7

Recognizing others emotions

Answer 7

~4-6m infants can distinguish facial expressions with emotions

Question 8

Social referencing

Answer 8

Infants in an unfamiliar or ambiguous environment look to their parent to search for cues to help them interpret the situation

Question 9

Understanding emotions

Answer 9

-kindergarten aged children can apply their own experiences with emotions and apply it to others to understand how they are feeling
-in elementary school years they can understand mixed-emotions and how some scenarios can cause people to feel multiple emotions
-understanding of emotions is liked to a strong positive relationship with parents

Question 10

Display rules

Answer 10

Culturally specific standards for appropriate expressions of emotion in a particular setting or with a particular person/people

Question 11

Regulating emotions

Answer 11

• can be seen ~4-6m where children use simple strategies to regulate their emotions
  -school age children are more self-regulating and dont rely as much on a parent
  -teens are better at matching emotion regulating skills to a specific setting

Question 12

Temperament

Answer 12

A consistent style or pattern of behaviour

Question 13

Surgency/extraversion

Answer 13

Dimension of temperament that refers to the extent that a child is generally happy, active, vocal and seeks interesting stimulation

Question 14

Negative affect

Answer 14

Dimension of temperament that refers to the extent to which a child is angry, fearful, frustrated, shy and not easily soothed

Question 15

Effortful control

Answer 15

Extent to which a child can focus attention, is not readily distracted,and can inhibit responses

Question 16

Hereditary+ environmental contributions to temperament

Answer 16

-identical twins more likely to be similar in temperament than fraternal
Environment contributes:
-parents behaviour impact
-temperament can be amplified

Question 17

Stability of temperament

Answer 17

-moderately stable through infancy and become more stable in preschool years
-when inhibited toddlers are adults they respond more strongly to unfamiliar stimuli
-inhibited children more likely to be introverted adults
-research also reveals many instances where temperament not related to adult personality

Question 18

Temperament+ other aspects of development

Answer 18

-various aspects related to school success, peer interactions, compliance with parents, +depression
-influence of temperament depends on environmental influences
-children who resist control are less likely to have behaviour problems when parents exert appropriate control

Question 19

Growth of attachment

Answer 19

-attachment: enduring social-emotional relationship between infant and parent
-relies on infants growing perceptual and cognitive skills
-~7m infants in western societies have identified a single attachment figure’
-usually first attach to mothers, then to fathers
-prefer to play with fathers but prefer mothers for comfort, these differences have become smaller

Question 20

Quality of attachment

Answer 20

-secure attachment is most common form worldwide, % of infants in the different categories of insecure attachment differs substantially across cultures
-secure attachment leads to positive social relationships, due to establishment of trust
-predictable, responsive parenting necessary for secure attachment
-infant needs consistent internal working
-must understand relationship to their parents
-adults may be classified as secure, dismissive or preoccupied
-secure adults more likely to provide sensitive caregiving and have securely attached infants
-self awareness may be an important factor in inter generational attachment
-training can help mothers respond more effectively to their babys needs

Question 21

Origins of self-recognition

Answer 21

-15m show self recognition in mirror tasks
-18-24m child looks more at photos of self than others, use name/personal pronouns
-self concept comes from self-awareness

Question 22

The evolving self concept

Answer 22

-when describing themselves preschoolers use concrete characteristics such as physical, preferential, competence characteristics and possessions
-comments reflect cultural values
-5-7y child mentions emotions, social groups+ comparisons to others
-teens mention attitudes, personality traits, religious/political beliefs
-teens self-concepts vary with context+ are often future oriented

Question 23

Culture+ self

Answer 23

-individualistic cultures encourage reflection about the self
-Collectivistic cultures focus on the needs of the group over the individual

Question 24

Search for identity-teens

Answer 24

-teens use hypothetical reasoning to experiment with different selves
-teens characterized by self-absorption: adolescent egocentrism, imaginary audience, personal fable+ illusion of invulnerability
-adolescence is a time of mood disruptions, conflict with parents+ antisocial behaviour

Question 25

Developmental change in self-esteem

Answer 25

-child has a differentiated self-view ~4-5y
-4 areas of self-esteem emerge in elementary school years: scholastic, athletic, social+physical
-self-esteem in some domains contributes more than others to sense of self-worth
-self-esteem highest in preschoolers
-social comparison lead to drops in self-esteem beginning in elementary school years
-self-esteem usually stabilizes by end of elementary school years, but sometimes drop in high school

Question 26

Self esteem with ethnicity+ culture

Answer 26

-ethnicity+ culture influence self-esteem in different domains
-self-worth as well as the direction of changes in self-worth varies for children of different ethnic backgrounds
-Asian cultures more likely to emphasize modesty, admit weaknesses, + eschew social comparisons

Question 27

Sources of self esteem

Answer 27

-child’s self-worth greater hen they are skilled in areas important to them
-higher self esteem when parents are nurturing+ involved+ establish rules concerning discipline
-self-esteem high when others view positively+ low when others view negatively
-praise should focus on effort rather than ability
-when child faced with an apparent setback to their work:
-if praised for effort= work harder
-if praised for ability= work less hard

Question 28

Low self-esteem: cause/consequences

Answer 28

-children with low self esteem more likely to have issues with peers, have psychological disorders, be involved in bullying/aggressive behaviour, do poorly in school
-depression can be a chronic outcome of low self-esteem
-low self esteem both a cause of future bad outcomes+ a consequence of past difficulties
-inflated sense of self worth can contribute to bullying+ aggression

Question 29

Describing others

Answer 29

-descriptions of others follow similar path as descriptions of self + become increasingly abstract
-child focuses on concrete characteristics, by teen years descriptions more abstract+ describe psychological traits
-until ~10y children demonstrate bias for seeing positive traits in others

Question 30

Selman’s stages of perspective talking

Answer 30

-undifferentiated(3-6y): others can have different thoughts+ feelings but often confuse the 2
-social-informational(4-9y): know perspectives differ because people have access to different info
-self-reflective (7-12y): can step into other peoples shoes and view themselves as others do, know others do the same
-third person(10-15y): can step outside their immediate situation to see how they and another person are viewed by a third person
-societal (14+y): realizes that a 3rd persons perspective is influenced by broader personal, social+ cultural contexts

Question 31

Prejudice

Answer 31

a negative view of others based on group membership
-preschoolers+ kindergarteners attribute many positive traits to their own group
-prejudice usually declined during elementary school, but increases during teen years due to internalization of prejudice I society+ increased preference for own group
-we can reduce by
-ensuring equality of status for all
-encouraging friendly, constructive contact between groups that involve working towards a common goal
-engaging children in role play to help them learn about experiences of others from different groups
-ensuring that adults (parents+ teachers) support the goal of reducing prejudice

Question 32

Beginnings of self-control

Answer 32

-1 year: Aware that others impose demands
-2 years: Have internalized some controls
-3 years: Capable of self-regulation
-Self-control develops gradually during elementary school
-Consistency in self-control; preschoolers’ self-control predicts outcomes in early adulthood

Question 33

Influences on self-control

Answer 33

-Parental discipline style is important
-Inductive reasoning
– Explaining the situation to the child
– Encouraging them to think it through on their own
-Very strict parents hinder the development of self-control
-Both temperament and culture influence the development of self-control

Question 34

Improving children’s self-control

Answer 34

-Remind children of the need to resist temptation (e.g., long-term goals are more important than short-term goals)
-Make tempting events less attractive
-Children who have concrete way of handling tempting situations are better at resisting

Question 35

Piaget’s view on reasoning about moral issues

Answer 35

Until about 4y the child is premoral
– No consistent understanding of morality
Between 5 and 7 years of age, children are in a stage of
moral realism
– Rules must be followed and cannot be changed Heteronomous morality
– Absolute rules handed down by another
Immanent justice
– Belief that breaking a rule always leads to punishment
Around 8 years of age, there is a progression to moral relativism
– Understanding that rules are created by people to help them get along
Autonomous morality
– Many people work together to create rules – Based on free will
Major contribution of Piaget: Moral reasoning progresses through stages that are driven by cognitive development and social interaction

Question 36

Kohlberg’s view on reasoning about moral issues

Answer 36

Used dilemmas to examine moral reasoning
Three levels of moral reasoning, each with 2 stages:
Preconventional
-Focus on obedience to authority
Conventional
- Focus on social norms
Postconventional
-Focus on personal, moral principles
Support for theory: moral reasoning linked to moral behaviour

Question 37

Beyond Kohlberg’s theory

Answer 37

-Gilligan questioned orientation to justice in Kohlberg’s theory and advanced an “ethic of care”
-Gilligan suggested that justice applies more to males’ reasoning about morality, and females are more focused on concern for others
-Research suggests that both justice and care serve as a basis for moral reasoning for both men and women, depending on the nature of the moral problem
Morality represents one domain of social judgments agreed to within a group to facilitate interactions
– Personal domain refers to choices about one’s own body, friends, and activities
– Social conventions are arbitrary standards of behaviour
Reasoning about the domains becomes more nuanced as children develop
The domains of morality, social convention and personal autonomy exist across cultures but there are cultural differences in how actions are categorized
Much of moral developmental theory emphasizes cognition (i.e., focus on reasoning)
Emotions and cognition interact in the development of moral judgments
Repeated exposure to events leads children to form scripts about the emotional consequences of particular actions
Emotional response is an important step in creating different categories of moral concepts

Question 38

Promoting moral reasoning

Answer 38

-Reasoning becomes more sophisticated after discussions about moral issues and exposure to higher levels of reasoning
-Discussion about human rights, responsibilities, and respect are valuable components of school curriculum
-Hearing about problems of others can inspire children and adolescents to act for social change

Question 39

Free card

Question 40

Development of Prosocial Behaviour/altruism

Answer 40

Prosocial behaviour: Actions that benefit others Altruism: Prosocial behaviour that helps others with no
direct benefit to the individual
– By 18 months, simple acts of altruism can be seen
– During preschool years, children gradually understand others’ needs and learn appropriate altruistic behaviour, but early altruism is limited
Both prosocial intentions and strategies for helping increase with age

Question 41

Skills Underlying Prosocial Behaviour

Answer 41

Perspective-taking: Children help when they can imagine another’s situation
Empathy: Children help when they can feel as another person is feeling
– Cognitive empathy
– Affective empathy
Moral reasoning: Children become more prosocial as they mature and begin to make moral decisions based on principles rather than on the basis of reward and punishment

Question 42

Teaching Prosocial Behaviour

Answer 42

-Model prosocial behaviour for children
-Prosocial behaviour is encouraged by parents who are warm and supportive, set guidelines, and provide feedback that helps children to understand how their actions affect others
-children and adolescents need to routinely be given the opportunity to help and cooperate with others, which sensitizes them to needs of others and gives them the satisfaction of helping

Question 43

Aggression-Change and stability

Answer 43

-instrumental aggression: Used to achieve specific goal (e.g., getting a toy)
-Hostile aggression: Unprovoked aggression with the goal of intimidation, harassment, or humiliation
-Reactive aggression: One child’s behaviour leads to another’s aggression
-Relational aggression: Try to hurt others by undermining social relationships
-Socialized aggression: Aggression that is expected within a situation (e.g., a hockey fight)

Forms of aggression change with age, but individuals’ tendency toward aggression is moderately stable

Question 44

Roots of aggressive behaviour

Answer 44

Biological risk factors include temperament, hormonal influences, and neurotransmitter deficits
Parenting factors include:
– controlling or coercive parents
– use of harsh physical punishment and threats
– unresponsive or emotionally uninvested parents – lack of monitoring
– neglect
– presence of conflict in the home
-Cascading risks: Later risk factors build on prior risks

Question 45

Victims of aggression

Answer 45

-Chronic victims of aggression and bullying are often lonely, anxious, depressed, dislike school, and have low self- esteem
-Cyberbullying is a modern form of bullying and rumour- mongering
-Youngsters are more likely to be victims of aggression when they are aggressive themselves or are withdrawn, submissive, and have low self-esteem
-An effective strategy for victims is to be assertive

Question 46

Gender stereotypes+ roles

Answer 46

Stereotypes: Beliefs about how males and females differ in personality traits, interests, and behaviours
Roles: Culturally prescribed behaviours considered appropriate for males and females
In North America men seen as instumental and women as expressive

Question 47

Learning gender stereotypes

Answer 47

-By age 4, children have extensive knowledge of gender-stereotyped activities
-During elementary-school years, children learn that traits and occupations associated with males have higher status
-Older children see stereotypes as general guidelines that are not necessarily binding
-Girls tend to be more flexible about stereotypes
-Adolescents from middle-class homes tend to have more flexible ideas about gender than those from lower-class homes

Question 48

Gender differences in physical development

Answer 48

-Obvious differences in primary and secondary sexual characteristics
-Boys tend to be bigger, stronger, faster, more active
-Girls tend to be healthier and better on tasks requiring fine-motor coordination

Question 49

Gender differences in intellectual development

Answer 49

-Verbal ability: Girls excel at reading, writing, and spelling, and are less likely to have language-related difficulties
-Left hemisphere may develop more quickly in girls
-Spatial ability: Boys tend to surpass girls at mental rotation and determining relations between objects in space
-Spatial Memory: Females tend to have better memory for spatial locations of objects
-girls tend to perform better in math in elementary school, switches in high school and college
-girls tend to better remember the identity and location of objects, remember faces more accurately, and provide more detail when describing past events, can be linked to having a larger hippocampus

Question 50

Gender differences in personality+ social behaviour

Answer 50

-Boys are more likely to be physically aggressive
-Aggressive behaviour has been linked to androgens, hormones secreted by the testes
-Girls tend to use relational aggression rather than physical aggression
-Girls tend to be better than boys at expressing emotions and interpreting others’ emotions
Social influence: Girls are more compliant and are more likely to be influenced by persuasive messages and group pressure;
-Girls are more skilled at effortful control
-girls more likely to be depressed+ engage in rumination
-teenage girls particularly vulnerable to interpersonal stressors

Question 51

Gender identity

Answer 51

-Sex Assigned at Birth: assigning sex to a newborn on the basis of genital structure
-Gender Identity: the individual’s own perception of themself, whether male, female, or something else

Question 52

Socializing experiences of people and the media- gender

Answer 52

-parents treat both genders alike except for behaviour related to gender roles
-Parents are more positive when children play with toys typical for their sex
-Fathers are more likely to encourage behaviour associated with gender stereotypes
-Many teachers make gender salient in the classroom and interact more with boys than girls
-Peers tend to be critical of cross-gender play, especially in boys
-During the preschool years, most children begin to prefer playing with same-sex peers
-Early segregation of playmates means that boys learn primarily from boys and girls from girls, reinforcing gender differences in play
-Girls’ interactions tend to be enabling and boys’ tend to be constricting

Question 53

Cognitive theories of gender identity

Answer 53

-gender identity develops gradually
-Child develops an understanding of gender labelling and stability
-According to gender-schema theory, once children learn their gender, they pay more attention to objects and activities that are considered gender appropriate

Question 54

Biological influences on gender identity

Answer 54

-Evolutionary adaptation to male and female roles may influence gender differences
-The amount of testosterone in amniotic fluid predicts a child’s preference for masculine sex-typed activities
-Girls who are affected by congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) are exposed to large amounts of androgen during prenatal development and tend to prefer masculine activities and male playmates
-Complexity of genetic viability and gene expression
-Sex differences in cognition - the brain as a “mosaic” instead of gendered

Question 55

Biopsychosocial Model of Gender

Answer 55

-Children’s understanding of gender not as a dichotomy but as choice
-LGBTQ2S+ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, Two-Spirit, plus other)
-Dynamic systems theory: development as involving many distinct skills that are organized and reorganized over time to meet demands of specific tasks
-Biology, socializing influence of others and media, and child’s own efforts to understand gender all interact

Question 56

Emerging Gender Roles

Answer 56

-Androgynous people are high in both expressive and instrumental traits
-Androgynous children often better adjusted than when gender roles are highly stereotyped
-Being androgynous benefits girls’ self-esteem more than boys’
-A balance of instrumentality and expressiveness may be especially adaptive

Question 57

Changing traditional gender roles

Answer 57

-Children can be taught to have fewer stereotyped views of occupations and household activities in the short-term
-Parents may influence children by not being gender bound themselves
-Parents should base decisions about toys, activities, and chores on individual child, not child’s sex
-Children can’t be sheltered from forces outside the home that shape gender roles, but parents can encourage critical thinking about gender-based choices of others

Question 58

The Family as a System

Answer 58

-In the systems view of families, parents and children influence each other and the family system is influenced by other individuals and institutions
-Collectivist nature of communities where extended family and community play a role in raising children

Question 59

Styles of Parenting

Answer 59

Two primary dimensions:
–warmth and responsiveness
–control
-High levels of warmth and responsiveness and moderate levels of control are the best
-Control involves setting age-appropriate standards consistent enforcement of rules, and good communication

Question 60

Parental Behaviour/ skill building

Answer 60

-Direct instruction: Telling children what to do, when, and why
-Observing: Children learn from watching others and from counterimitation (learning what should not be done)
-Feedback: Reinforcement is useful, but parents often unknowingly reinforce behaviours they want to prevent (negative reinforcement trap)

Question 61

Punishment+ disadvantages

Answer 61

–Behaviours are only stopped temporarily
–Child may be too angry or upset to learn alternative behaviour
–Child may imitate aggressive behaviours of parent with peers and younger siblings, leading to behaviour problems
-In time out, a child who misbehaves must briefly sit alone in a quiet, unstimulating location
-Time in is an alternative method that is gaining ground in Early Childhood Education settings

Question 62

Effective punishment

Answer 62

-administered promptly and consistently
-accompanied by an explanation and suggestions for future ways of behaving
-administered by a person with whom the child has a warm affectionate relationship

Question 63

Influences of the Marital System

Answer 63

-Chronic parental conflict is harmful for children
-Many parents work together in a coordinated and complementary fashion toward shared goals for child’s development
-Lack of teamwork, competition for child’s attention, and gatekeeping often cause problems
-Parents’ work-related stress impacts on parenting

Question 64

The Impact of Divorce on Children

Answer 64

-Negative effects of divorce are related to parental absence, economic hardship, and conflict between parents
-Children who are temperamentally more emotional tend to be more affected by divorce
-Divorce is more harmful when it occurs during childhood and adolescence than during the preschool or college years
-Divorce affects children’s school achievement, conduct, adjustment, self-concept, and relationships with parents
-Overall risk of emotional and behavioural problems is higher for children of divorce, but the majority will not experience long-term negative effects

Question 65

Blended Families

Answer 65

-the most typical blended family is a mother, children, and a stepfather
-Children benefit from the presence of a warm and supportive stepfather
-Preferential treatment for biological over step-children almost always leads to conflict and unhappiness
-Best strategy for stepfathers is to be interested, but not to interfere with established relationships
-Blended families can be beneficial for children and adolescents, but it takes effort

Question 66

Firstborn, Laterborn, and Only Children

Answer 66

-Parents tend to have more realistic expectations and be more relaxed in their discipline with laterborn compared to firstborn children
-Firstborn children generally have higher scores on intelligence tests, are more likely to go to university, and more willing to conform to adults’ requests
-Laterborn children tend to be more popular and innovative
-Only children are more likely to succeed in school and have higher levels of intelligence and self-esteem, but don’t differ in popularity, adjustment, and personality

Question 67

Adopted Children

Answer 67

-Most adopted children develop within the typical range
-Problems are most likely when children are adopted after infancy and when their care before adoption was poor

Question 68

Maltreatment and Its Consequences

Answer 68

-When children are abused, their social, emotional, and intellectual development is often affected
-Psychological and emotional abuse have extensive negative effects
-Adults who were abused as children often experience emotional problems, are more prone to suicide, and are more likely to abuse their own spouses and children

Question 69

Causes of Maltreatment

Answer 69

-Cultural and social factors: Cultural attitudes, poverty, social isolation, stress in military families when one parent is absent from home
-Parental factors: Abusive parents often experienced abuse themselves, lack adequate parenting skills, and experience dysfunctional marriages
-Child factors: Stepchildren as well as children who are very young, “challenging,” or ill are more often targets for abuse

Question 70

Development of Peer Interactions

Answer 70

-There is a developmental sequence to social play, including parallel play, associative play, and cooperative play
-Cooperative play becomes the norm by approximately 3.5 years
-In preschool years cooperative play often includes make-believe
-Themes of make-believe and play style are influenced by culture
-Children who engage in make-believe play tend to be more advanced in language, memory, executive functioning, and more sophisticated in understanding others’ thoughts, beliefs, and feelings
-Solitary play can be important for children’s cognitive development (e.g., divergent thinking)
-Some forms of solitary play may indicate problems with social interaction

Question 71

Parental involvement in development of peer interactions

Answer 71

-Parent involvement in preschool children’s play includes different roles: playmate, social director, coach, and mediator
-Elementary school-age children become more skilled at initiating and maintaining peer relationships
-Rough-and-tumble play becomes common in elementary-school years, especially with boys
-A secure maternal attachment relationship contributes to positive peer relationships

Question 72

What children look for in friendships

Answer 72

-Psychological features such as trust and assistance become important by 8-11 years of age
-Intimacy and loyalty become important in adolescence as friends are seen as sources of social and emotional support
-Children and adolescents tend to befriend others who are similar to themselves; similarity in friends’ values and attitudes increases over time
-Children with good friends have higher self-esteem, are less likely to be lonely and depressed, better able to cope with life stresses, less likely to be victimized by peers, have greater self-worth as young adults, and tend to be more prosocial

Question 73

Groups

Answer 73

-Cliques and crowds are common during adolescence
-Most groups have a dominance hierarchy
-Peer pressure can be negative or
positive
Peer influence is strongest when:
– youth are younger and more socially
anxious
– peers have higher status
– peers are friends
– standards for appropriate behaviour are unclear

Question 74

Popularity+ rejection

Answer 74

-Most children fall into one of 5 categories: popular, rejected, controversial, average, and neglected
-Repeated rejection in childhood can have long-term consequences such as dropping out of school, engagement in criminal behaviour, and experiencing psychopathology
-Parents influence children’s rejection by modelling negative social skills and by providing inconsistent discipline that contributes to an aggressive interpersonal style
-Rejected children can be taught social skills that contribute to peer acceptance

Question 75

Effective school climate

Answer 75

-Students better off when teachers are supportive and involved, yet apply firm discipline when needed
-Lower levels of depression, higher levels of motivation
– Successful teaching similar to successful parenting
– Promote engagement

Question 76

Ethnic identity

Answer 76

-ethnic identity: feeling a part of one’s ethnic group
-many teens able to maintain strong ties to both ethnic+ mainstream cultures, while others find identifying with mainstream culture weakens ethnic ties+ may create conflict with parents
-strong ethnic identity benefits self-esteem+ relationships

Question 77

Social-Information-Processing Theory:

Answer 77

Aggressive children systematically misperceive people’s actions