Final Flashcards
leLearning
A relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience, can’t be due to maturation, temporary states (fatigue, drugs), or natural response
Classical Conditioning
Type of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a response that was originally produced by a different stimulus
Stimulus
Any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds
Pavlov’s Experiments
Unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, conditioned response
Unconditioned Stimulus
A stimulus that automatically leads to an observable response prior to any training
Unconditioned Response
The observable response that is produced automatically to an unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus
The neutral stimulus that is paired with the unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned Response
The acquired response that is produced by the conditioned stimulus in anticipation of the unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned
Learned
Unconditioned
Unlearned, automatic
Little Albert
Fears are learned, not born with them (rat with loud noise, conditioned response)
Acquisition
Initial stage, before neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus
Extinction
Conditioned stimulus is not paired with the unconditioned stimulus, so conditioned stimulus diminishes (bell not paired with food, after a while salivation will not occur)
Spontaneous Recovery
Reappearance of extinguished conditioned stimulus
Generalization
Stimulus similar to conditioned stimulus elicit similar response
Discrimination
Distinguish between similar stimuli
Operant Conditioning
Type of learning in which the consequences of behavior are manipulated in order to increase or decrease the frequency of an existing response
Classical Conditioning
Organism learns associations between events it doesn’t control
Operant Conditioning
Learning associations between own behavior and resulting events
Skinner
Behavior that is followed by rewarding consequences are repeated
Shaping
Gradually molding a desired behavior by reinforcing any movement in desired direction (pigeon eats when light is on, moves in a circle, reinforces)
Positive Reinforcement
Reward following desired behavior
Negative Reinforcement
Remove unpleasant stimulus following behavior
Positive and Negative Reinforcement
Both increase preceding response, primary reinforcers/reinforcers secondary
Punishment
Consequences that decrease the likelihood of responding in a similar way again
Positive Punishment
Do something to decrease behavior, prevent sucking thumb - hot sauce
Negative Punishment
Take away something to decrease behavior
Reinforcement Schedules
Fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval
Fixed Ratio
Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses, pause after reinforcement, assembly line workers = pay/pairs made
Variable Ratio
Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses, slot machine, highest response rate
Fixed Interval
Reinforcement after fixed period of time, lowest response rate, long pause after reinforcement
Variable Interval
Reinforcement after an unpredictable time interval, check social media for comments, stable/high response rate
Observational Learning
Learn by watching others - social learning, Bandura Bobo doll experiment - amount of aggression
Remembering Requires
Encoding, storage, retrieval
Encoding
Translating information into neural codes
Storage
The process of retaining information
Retrieval
Getting information out
Atkinson - Shiffrin Model of Memory
3 memory systems - sensory, short-term, long-term
Sensory Memory
Purpose - memory from senses, duration - up to 2 seconds, capacity - large
Short-Term Memory
Purpose - temporarily stores sensory information, duration - up to 30 seconds, capacity - 5-9 items, most items lost without rehearsal
Long-Term Memory
Purpose - relatively permanent storage, duration - relatively permanent, capacity - relatively unlimited
Types of Short-Term Memory
Displacement, chunking
Displacement
When STM fills ip, incoming information pushed out existing information (which is forgotten)
Chunking
Grouping bits of information into larger units, overcome limits of 7 bits of information
Types of Long-Term Memory
Declarative/explicit, non-declarative/implicit
Declarative/Explicit
Episodic - mental diary (“I had a great bike ride last weekend”), semantic - general knowledge, facts (“Bikes have wheels”)
Non-Declarative/Implicit
Motor skills, classically conditioned responses, habits
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon
Retrieval failure; sensation of knowing that you know it
Recall
Retrieve memory with few cues, fill in the blank
Recognition
Identify material as familiar, multiple choice
Visualization
Using mental imagery can help you remember that information
Elaborative Rehearsal
Linking new information to previously stored information, deep processing
Context
Much easier to retrieve certain memories when the “context” or circumstances around the memory are the same for both the original encoding and retrieval (childhood home)
Mnemonic Devices
Memory improving technique based on encoding items in a special way, making up songs or phrases
Distortion
Alternation of memory to fit existing beliefs and expectations, usually positive, remember A’s better than D’s
Misinformation Effect
Incorporate misleading information into memory, Loftus (S’s shown video of car driving, later 1/2 were asked how far the car was going when it passed the barn, other 1/2 were asked how fast the car was going, 6x more people in the first group mistakenly remembered a barn in the video)
How Often Are Eyewitnesses Mistaken?
Participants saw staged crime, 1 hour later they saw mug shots and were asked to ID the suspect, 1 week later asked to ID the suspect from a lineup, suspect was not in mug shot or the lineup (20% ID innocent person in mug shot, 8% ID innocent person in mug shot or in lineup, seeing mug shot leads to familiarity)
Eyewitnesses
Eyewitnesses are notoriously awful at remembering events
Loftus’ Research on Memory Construction
Did you see the broken headlight? - More false reports of broken headlight, working - smash vs. hit
Change Blindness
Things that change go unnoticed because we are not paying attention
Flashbulb Memory
A distinct, detailed memory of an emotional or important event, research following 9/11 showed that even flashbulb memories can be inaccurate (73% of people recalled seeing the first plane hit, but no footage was shown at the time)
Imagination
May also be a factor in false memories, imagination inflation, participants asked to imagine something that never happened to them were more likely to falsely state that the event happened to them
Things That Affect Eyewitness Errors
First describe perp then look at photos - less errors, lineup - composition, sequential lineup, race, weapon, influence accuracy, avoid leading questions, confidence does not equal accuracy, James Tillman
Personality
Unique pattern of traits and behavior possessed by each individual, relatively stable and enduring patterns of thoughts/feelings/and actions
Traits
Essential characteristics that distinguish different people, often described using adjectives (cheerful), limited in number, each individual differs in degree of a trait
Big 5
Cross-cultural number, describes and organizes personality with the fewest number of traits
Problems With the Big 5
Lack of explanation - why do people develop these traits?, lack of specificity - personality stable after 30 and least stable before 3 and characteristics that last entire life not identified, ignores importance of situation - personality is stable but situation plays role
Big 5 Factors
Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
Openness
Low scores - down-to-earth, uncreative, conventional, uncurious, high scores - imaginative, creative, original, curious
Conscientiousness
Low scores - negligent, lazy, disorganized, late, high scores - conscientious, hard-working, well-organized, punctual
Extraversion
Low scores - loner, quiet, passive, reserved, high scores - joiner, talkative, active, affectionate
Agreeableness
Low scores - suspicious, critical, ruthless, irritable, high scores - trusting, lenient, soft-hearted, good-natured
Neuroticism
Low scores - calm, even-tempered, comfortable, unemotional, high scores - worried, temperamental, self-conscious, emotional
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Psychoanalysis - theory of personality and therapy for treating psychological disorders
Levels of Consciousness
Conscious - aware, tip of the iceberg, pre-conscious - can be brought to surface, not aware, unconscious - most things are here, anxiety provoking, never been aware, root cause of psych disorders
Freudian Mental Structures
ID - pleasure seeker, unconscious, sex and aggression, ego - reality principle, logical, rational, conscious, superego - moral system
Defense Mechanisms
Used to defend against anxiety caused by demands of id judgement of superego
Repression
Block unacceptable feelings of experiences, unconscious
Regression
Responding to a threatening situation in a way appropriate to an earlier age or level of development
Projection
Transfer unacceptable motives to others
Rationalization
Substitute socially acceptable reasons for unacceptable ones
Displacement
Substitute a less threatening object or person for the original object or sexual or aggressive impulse
Reaction Formation
Exaggerated idea/feeling opposite of how you really feel - hide unacceptable feelings
Sublimation
Rechanneling sexual or aggressive energy into socially acceptable behavior
Psychosexual Development
Biggest influence on personality; sex, each stage centers on body part - particular kinds of pleasures must be gratified for normal personality development, fixation - arrested development at a psychosexual stage occurring because of excessive gratification or frustration at that stage
Psychosexual Stages
Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
Oral
Birth to 1 year, pleasure - sucking, chewing, conflict - weaning, personality characteristics - excessive dependence, gullibility, sarcasm, hostility
Anal
1 to 3 years, focus - anus; expelling and withholding feces, conflict - toilet training, personality characteristics - anal retentive = rigid, excessively clean, anal expulsive = irresponsible, rebellious, messy
Phallic
3 to 5 years, focus - genitals, conflict - oedipus complex = children sexually attracted to the opposite sex parent and hostile toward same-sex parent, penis envy - girls blame mother for anatomical “deficiency” personality characteristics - flirtatious, vane, promiscuous, chastity
Latency
6 to puberty, sex instinct repressed
Genital
Puberty to adulthood, focus - sexual energy gradually shifts to opposite sex, gay/lesbian = “unsuccessful” at overcoming the conflict of this stage
Motivation
All the processes that initiate, direct, and sustain behavior, mental states that energize us
Components of Motivation
Activation - initiation of motivated behavior (first steps), persistence - continued effort put forth to achieve goal (stick with it), intensity - focused energy and attention to achieve a goal (motivated)
Motives
Can arise from internal or external sources
Intrinsic Motivation
The desire to behave in a certain way because it is enjoyable (accomplishment, permanent)
Extrinsic Motivation
The desire to behave in a certain way due to external reward (good grades)
Instinct Theory (William James)
Human behavior is motivated by certain inborn, unlearned tendencies shared by all individuals, ex. - birds migrate south for winter, “maternal instinct,” fight or flight, problems - humans probably don’t have many instincts
Drive Reduction
Biological needs create internal states of tension or arousal called drives; organisms try to reduce these drives, no water = thirst, theory based on idea of homeostasis
Drive
Internal state of tension or arousal is due to underlying need
Arousal Theory
People are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness - climb mountain for excitement and listen to classical music for relaxation, if the arousal is less than optimal we do something to stimulate it; we seek to reduce stimulation, when arousal is optimal the performance is high, sensation seekers prefer higher levels of arousal
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Humanistic perspective, humans need more than to satisfy hunger, lower motives must be satisfied first before meeting higher needs, contains important truths about human nature although it lacks sufficient research support, lowest to highest, (Physiological needs, safety needs, love and belonging, esteem, self-actualization) - critiques of this idea
Maslow’s Hierarchy Renovated
Immediate physiological needs, self-protection, affiliation, status/esteem, mate acquisition, mate retention, parenting
Positive Psychology
Branch of psychology focusing on the strengths, virtues, and talents that contribute to successful functioning, ability to flourish
Strengths of Positive Psychology
Enduring qualities which result from consistent constructive life choices in specific areas, according to Seligman there are 24 principle and universal strengths each associated with 6 specific virtues
Key Findings of Positive Psychology
In the United States the most commonly endorsed strengths - kindness, fairness, honesty, gratitude, and judgment, strengths most associated with better life satisfaction - hope, zest, gratitude, love, “strengths of the heart,” strength least associated with life satisfaction - love of learning and curiosity
3 Key Strengths That Are a Major Focus of Research
Forgiveness, gratitude, humility
Forgiveness
Self - wrongdoing can cause guilt and self-loathing, other - resentment can cause hate and intolerance, forgiveness leads to healing, building block of healthy relationships, creates possibility for relationship to recover from damage caused
Gratitude
Feeling of appreciation or thankfulness in response to receiving a benefit, helps us feel good, inspires us to do good, people who rate themselves high on gratitude have greater empathy/forgiveness/willingness to help others, students who practice this increase grades
Humility
Clear and accurate (not underestimated) sense of one’s abilities and achievements, ability to acknowledge one’s mistakes/imperfections/gaps in knowledge/and limitations, tolerate an honest look at themselves and non-defensively accept their weaknesses alongside their strengths, openness to new ideas/contradictory information/and advice, humble teachers are rated as more effective and humble lawyers as more likeable by jurors
Psychological Disorders, Determining Whether Behavior is a Psychological Disorder
Rare behavior, loss of normal functioning, personal distress, culturally abnormal behavior
Culture Bound Disorder
Taijin Kyofusho (TKS), “disorder of fear,” social phobia disorder, differs from social phobia in U.S. because they are fearful of embarrassing others by being in their presence, 10-20% of Japanese adults, more frequent in men
A Big Problem In Psychological Disorders
22% of Americans diagnosed with psychological disorders each year, 1% diagnosed with cancer, DSM-V (Diagnostic and Statistical Manuel)
Anxiety Disorders
Characterized by excessive fear or anxiety, types - generalized anxiety, social anxiety, phobias
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
Chronic excessive worry that is difficult to control and accompanied by factors such as tension/fatigue/difficulty concentrating, worry is often irrational, 5% of adults, women 2x rate of men, more likely
GAD Symptoms
Psychological - inability to control worry, worry out of proportion, irritability, difficulty concentrating, distress, physical - restlessness, fatigue, sweating, flush, heart pounding, insomnia, headaches
Treatment
Therapy - cognitive behavior therapy/exposure therapy, drugs - Benzodiazepines (tranquilizers), antidepressants (especially SSRIs), beta blockers
Social Anxiety Disorder
Anxiety over social or performance situations, exposed to unfamiliar people, potential humiliation, speaking in public, speaking to strangers, self-conscious in front of others, feel embarrassed and awkward, afraid others will judge them, stay away from places with other people
Specific Phobias
Intense, irrational fear of a specific object/event - high arousal (heartbeat), situation/object avoided, common phobias - heights, snakes, fear of injections
Treatment for Specific Phobias
Cognitive behavior therapy, exposure therapy
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
DSM-V now categorizes OCD under “obsessive compulsive and related disorders” - no longer considered with anxiety, obsessions - persistent recurring thoughts and impulses and images that a person is unable to control, intense uncomfortable feelings “just right feelings,” common obsessions - harm/losing control/contamination/perfectionism/sexual thoughts (unwanted)
Compulsions
Irresistible acts to control obsession, ritual - hand washing, if not done then anxiety increases, common compulsions - cleaning, checking, repeating, arranging
Treatment for OCD
Drugs that increase serotonin, behavior therapy
Schizophrenia
Two (or more) of the following - each present for a significant portion of time during a 1 month period (or less if successfully treated), at least one of these should include 1-3 - delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior negative symptoms (diminished emotional expression or avolition)
Psychotic Episodes
Psychosis - loss of touch with reality due to a disruption in the way that the brain processes information, may have difficulty distinguishing what is real from what is not
Delusions
False or irrational belief not believed by others, cannot be corrected by reason, examples - persecuting (paranoid): “the CIA is trying to kill me,” grandiose: “I felt that I had power to determine the weather,” thought broadcasting: “all my thoughts are being shown on youtube”
Disorganized Speech and Thoughts
Word salad (loose associations) - incoherent thought pattern, inability to stick to one topic, makes up words
Attention Disorders
Can’t concentrate, flooded by sights and sounds
Hallucinations
Sees/hears/smells/tastes/feels things that do not exist outside their mind, sensory experience without stimulation, 50-75% “hear voices,” research using brain imaging shows that for those hearing voices there are auditory changes in the left temporal lobe and auditory cortex
Artist Louis Wain
Schizophrenic - paintings reflected this, children’s books - used cats a lot
Grossly Disorganized or Catatonic Behavior
Catatonia - abnormal motor behavior, repetitive and involuntary movements, odd facial expressions, motionless
Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia
Little or no emotion, lack motivation (avolition)
Prodrome
Prodromal phase - early symptoms that may be nonspecific, occur before full blown psychotic episode
Age of Onset of Schizophrenia
Men: 16-25 years, women: 25-30 years
Risks of Developing Schizophrenia
Twins have a higher risk if one has it then the other might too, highest risk - identical twins, 48% chance
Marijuana and Schizophrenia
Those who use cannabis at an early age (before 18) have a higher risk of developing this, marijuana use may bring on the disorder for those with risk factors for this (THC), LSD may also cause this, may be due to - higher vulnerability of the developing brain, cumulative use is higher if used when you are younger
Neurological Differences Between Those With Schizophrenia and Those Without Schizophrenia
Ventricle size, overactive dopamine neurons - first generation antipsychotics decreases dopamine (Haldol: Thorazine): better at treating the positive symptoms, reduce relapse rates, side effects can be severe (tardive dyskinesia, sedation, heart problems), second generation antipsychotics are serotonin dopamine antagonists (blocks uptakes of these neurotransmitters), fewer side effects and significant weight gain, include things like risperidone among others, reduce both positive and negative symptoms, reduce relapse rates
Therapy for Schizophrenia Treatment
Cognitive Behavior Therapy can help - more helpful for positive symptoms, recognize delusional thinking, how to stop delusional thinking, coping, social skills training - enable people with this to acquire interpersonal disease management and independent living skills
More Gray Matter Loss In Brain = More Severe Schizophrenia
Big differences throughout the years in brain (changes)
Environmental Causes
Family communication, being born in the winter, mother had rubella or flu while pregnant, stress - may trigger schizophrenia in those with an inherited predisposition
Types of Schizophrenia
The DSM-V got rid of the types of them because they lacked reliability and validity, did not provide better treatment or predict response to treatment
Ancient Therapy
Trepanation - drill holes in skull, “release evil spirits,” “increase consciousness”
Lobotomy
Cut away part of frontal lobe or otherwise sever the pathways in the prefrontal cortex, 1936 1st century U.S. lobotomy by Walter Freeman, used before medication to control or calm patients, many patients left with “mind of a child”
Types of Therapy
Psychoanalytic, behavior, cognitive, cognitive behavior therapy, humanistic/client-centered
Psychoanalytic
Oldest psychotherapy and is the least used - 3-5 times per week for many years, aims - bring repressed thoughts into conscious, intrapsychic conflict caused by forbidden sexual and aggressive desires rooted in childhood, must be resolved through insight and overcome resistance, techniques - interpretation of underlying reasons, free association: allow unconscious material to be expressed, resistance: blocking anxiety laden material from consciousness, latent content of dreams
Modern Psychodynamic Therapy
Emphasizes current problem, face to face: therapist more directive, shorter duration, focus on helping client express emotion
Evaluating Psychodynamic Therapy
Time consuming, works for personality disorders/depression/some anxiety disorders, best for clients with - less severe disorders, highly motivated, verbal, intelligent
Behavior Therapy
Main idea - psychological disorders represent learned patterns of maladaptive (counterproductive) behaviors, goal is to reshape behavior - substitute adaptive behaviors (productive, desired), focuses on changing behavior and not understanding the roots of the problem, current problems only, uses classical and operant conditioning techniques
Exposure Therapies in Behavior Therapy
Empirically supported for phobias and OCD, systematic desensitization - a gradual process of extinguishing a learned fear, classical conditioning, relaxation, very effective for phobias and anxiety, flooding - total immersion in anxiety producing situation, operant therapies - use shaping and reinforcement or punishment, reward successive approximations of target behavior, contingency management rewarded with tangible and desirable goods or privileges for engaging in desirable behaviors, empirically supported for use in education/prison/addiction
Cognitive Therapy
Main idea - distorted ways of thinking cause psychological suffering, creates problem behaviors and emotions (“if I don’t do everything perfectly, I am worthless”), goal of cognitive therapy - therapist tests client’s belief against evidence: changing the way one thinks changes how they feel, changes self-talk, negative cognitive triad - dysfunctional, underlying core beliefs about the self, the world, and the future cause roadblocks to recovery, cognitive restructuring - the process in cognitive therapy to change destructive thinking (“if I don’t do everything perfectly, I am worthless” -> “I can accept my limits”), empirically supported for depression
Cognitive Behavior Therapy
learning better coping strategies can help to alleviate symptoms, thinking/emotion/behavior are all interrelated with one another, psychological disorders are partly explained by - faulty or unhelpful ways of thinking, learned patterns of behavior
Humanistic
Aims - maximize personal growth through “emotional readjustment, client-centered therapy (Carl Rogers) - encourage healthy emotional experiences, client discovers maladaptive patterns, therapist = accepting
Client-Centered Therapy
Empathy - insightful awareness and ability to share another’s inner experience (“you found the upsetting” rather than offer explanations), unconditional positive regard - nonjudgmental attitude and genuine caring for another
Active Listening
Listening with total attention - don’t interrupt, don’t get distracted, reflecting - mirroring emotional communication (client says “I feel like shit” the therapist says reflect this back by saying “So, life’s getting you down, hey?” the therapist is communicating to the client that he is indeed listening and cares enough to understand, “it sounds as if that experience made you feel sad, is that true”), paraphrasing - “what I hear you saying is…,” clarifying - “do you mean…?”
Motivational Interviewing
MI is - “designed to strengthen personal motivation for and commitment to a specific goal by eliciting and exploring the person’s own reasons for change within an atmosphere of acceptance and compassion,” MI is a guiding style of communication that sits between following (good listening) and directing (giving information and advice), MI is designed to empower people to change by drawing out their own meaning/importance/and capacity for change, MI is based on a respectful and curious way of being with people that facilitates the natural process of change and honors client autonomy
Culturally Sensitive Therapy
Most psychologists are white (80%) and 63% of counselors are white, culturally sensitive therapy - emphasizes therapist’s understanding client’s background and belief system as it relates to their race/ethnicity/sexual orientation/gender/or immigration status/etc., clients who do not feel understood by their therapist typically drop out of therapy, not a particular type of therapy (can be used with any type of therapy)
Decolonizing Therapy
Addressing structural racism and other forms of oppression that keep therapy from serving many marginalized communities, some practices of therapist’s trying to decolonize traditional therapy - recognize the limitations of Western psychology which primarily focuses on the individual and family or origin (recognize cultural, societal, and ancestral influences, including oppressive systems), allow for flexibility and fluidity in counseling when working with clients (many popular modalities in counseling were not created with BIPOC in mind, recognize individual choice as well as systemic limitations)
Culturally Sensitive Therapy
Among evidence-based treatment methods, motivation interviewing (MI) and the community reinforcement approach (CRA) show particular promise as culturally congruent methods in working with reservation-dwelling tribal populations, in contrast to more directive or confrontational styles MI mirrors tribal communication norms, and CRA is particularly well suited to make use of the extended family and unique clan structure of reservation life, work with American Indians with substance use problems - traditional treatments often not as effective, face different barriers to seeking help
Therapy Funding
Inclusive therapists created the BIPOC therapy fund - provide financial help for at least four initial sessions for people of color seeking therapy, Asian mental health collective also created the lotus therapy fund - provide financial support to Asian therapy seekers for 8 sessions
Randomized Controlled Trial
Research study to evaluate a treatment when research participants are randomly assigned to receive either treatment, no treatment/placebo
Efficiency
Efficacious therapy is one that has been shown to be better than a placebo (or no treatment) in a randomized clinical trial
Effective Treatment
Has utility in the real world of practicing therapists (not necessarily in the lab)
How Can a Treatment be Efficacious but not Effective?
Treatment received during RCT may be better than some therapy in outside settings, RCT may not be as appropriate as it is for drug testing because - some therapists are better than others and some clients are better at healing themselves, people who volunteer for RCT may differ from those who seek outside therapy, however, efficiency of therapy is at least as large as medical treatments for physical disorders and far better than some of those treatments, therapy is as good-or better-than psychoactive medication (at least for anxiety and depression), however, therapy may not “heal” disorders or result in such a large change that it makes a large difference in daily life
Social Psychology
Scientific study of the influence of social situations on individuals and the influence of individuals on social situations, how other people influence our thoughts/feelings/and actions
What Does It Mean to be Prejudiced?
Prejudice - negative feelings toward people based on their membership in certain groups
What Are Stereotypes?
Generalizations about the “typical” characteristics of members of a group, may be positive or negative
Types of Stereotypes
Explicit - aware, you know you do not like gay and lesbian individuals, implicit - not aware, automatic, unconscious bias, you think you like gay men and lesbians but you hold negative stereotypes about them
Implicit Associations Test (IAT)
Used to assess prejudice and stereotypes, people are unaware of their biases, prejudice is pervasive - over 80% of respondents show implicit negatively toward the elderly compared to the young, 75-80% of self-identified whites and Asians show and implicit preference for white relative to black
IAT
In a typical arrangement, participants are asked to sort images or words by pressing either the “e” key of a keyboard with their left hand or the “i” key with their right hand. At first the task is simple. You might be asked to sort words that are either negative sounding (“bad”) or positive (“good”). In a similarly easy task, you might be asked to sort pictures of African American or European American men. The words in the upper left-hand and upper right-hand corners of the panels in Figure 1 indicate the left and right choices that participants are to use in sorting.
IAT Cont’d
The IAT gets more difficult when trials combine the two kinds of stimuli-pictures and words to be sorted. As shown in panels 3 and 4 of Figure 1, participants are told that either a word or a face might appear in the center of the screen, and they should sort the stimulus accordingly. These combined sorting trials provide the crucial test for presence of bias.
Typically, when the left and right responses combine categories that are inconsistent with the participant’s biases, then responses slow down. For example, if the participant has an unconscious bias against African Americans, it will take longer to decide the word “Happy” requires a right-hand response when it is arranged as shown in Figure 1 panel 4. The most common theory behind this effect is that certain mental operations are automatic and others require deliberation. When the categories are inconsistent with our implicit biases, slower deliberative processing is required to sort the stimuli.
Questioning the IAT
May not have good test-retest reliability, correlation between IAT and discrimination is weak, interventions aimed to decrease implicit bias do not result in changes to behavior, people can fake responses
What Is Discrimination?
Negative behavior because of individual’s group membership
What Is Racism?
Prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s race, structural (systemic) racism, modern racism - subtle prejudice, safe, socially acceptable, people want to see themselves as fair, but they still harbor feelings or anxiety and discomfort about other racial groups
When Does Discrimination Begin?
White babies look longer at black faces - children naturally categorize objects, ingroup bias = tendency to assume your group share’s characteristics such as niceness and smarts - negative views of outgroup including prejudice toward outgroup members, which children would you like to have as friends - 3 year olds shown pictures of other children, 86% of white kids pick a kid of the same race
Does Being Surrounded by Diversity Lower Discrimination?
No, integrated schools have as many opportunities to teach stereotypes as to “unlearn” stereotypes
Intergroup Contact Reduces Prejudice
To reduce conflict - equal status between groups, personal interaction (one on one interactions), cooperative activities (members should join together to achieve superordinate goals), social norms (social norms must favor intergroup contact intergroup contact should occur under conditions supported by law or custom or be socially formalized)
Robbers Cave (Muzafer and Sherif, 1954)
Boys from similar backgrounds went to camp - broken into 2 groups (Rattlers and Eagles), first few days -> regular camp activities (with just their group), 4 days of contests, animosity between the groups grew, campers rated their own group as (brave, tough, friendly), outgroup viewed as (sneaky, smart-aleck, stinkers), phase 3: campers had to cooperate on tasks that couldn’t do alone (push broken truck, they ended up liking each other), the bottom line - outgroup members viewed negatively, cooperation on tasks that must have cooperation increases liking of outgroup members
How to Talk to Kids About Race
Conversation needs to be explicit - not “everybody’s equal,” do talk about discrimination, place value on cultural differences and traditions, it may not be easy, parents in one study and did not follow the guidelines - only 6 families managed to talk openly about interracial friendship, these kids had dramatically better racial attitudes, careful with these conversations
Discrimination
Hypothesis - potential employers view gay applicants more negatively, procedure - confederates were portrayed as being homosexual or not. They wore a hat that either said “gay and proud” or “texan and proud,” (confederates did not know which hat they were wearing), they applied for jobs at local schools, results - “gay” confederates were not formally discriminated against (ability to fill out job application), however, employers were verbally negative, spent less time, used fewer words when interacting with “gay” applicants
Conformity
Changing behavior as a result of real or imagined group pressure
Asch Results
Participants has 18 trials, 12 of which the confederates all gave the wrong answer. On those 12 trials - 75% of people conformed on at least some trials, 25% never conformed, only 5% conformed on all trials
Why Conform?
Normative social influence - gain approval, avoid rejection, informational social influence - other people might know something you don’t, obedience - ‘cause someone tells us to
Obedience
Following direct commands, usually from an authority figure
Milgram’s Obedience Study
Experimenter - stern, white lab coat, learner - confederate, person posing as a participant, teacher - participant, delivered “shocks” to learned when learner was incorrect
Milgram
Each time learner got the wrong answer the shock level increased, 15-450 volts, when teacher hesitates they were told “the experiment requires you to continue,” 0 participants stopped before 300 volts (learner pounding on the wall), 65% obeyed until the end
Group Polarization
Group’s position becomes more exaggerated with discussion, why? - increased exposure to persuasive arguments, conformity, “new” information reinforces original view
Group Think
Desire for harmony in decision-making, ignore important information held by critics, bad decisions
Symptoms of Group Think
Belief in morality of group, excessive stereotyping, pressure to conform,. self-censorship, illusion of unanimity, Illusion of invulnerability - possibility of failure not considered, collective rationalization - everyone in the group shares the same faulty explanation for why a particular tactic is necessary and why red flags should be ignored
Avoiding Group Think
Consider unpopular alternatives, doubts should be expressed, discuss decisions with individuals not in the decision-making group, be aware of group think
