Final Flashcards
The flow of energy in a biological system: the conversion of macronutrients into biologically usable forms of energy
Bioenergetics
The breakdown of large molecules into
smaller molecules, associated with the release of
energy
Catabolism
The synthesis of larger molecules from
smaller molecules; can be accomplished using the
energy released from catabolic reactions
Anabolism
Energy-releasing reactions that
are generally catabolic.
Exergonic reactions
Require energy and include
anabolic processes and the contraction of muscle.
Endergoinc reactions
The total of all the catabolic or exergonic
and anabolic or endergonic reactions in a biological
system.
Metabolism
Allows the transfer of
energy from exergonic to endergonic reactions.
Adenosis triphosphate (ATP)
Three basic energy systems exist in muscle
cells to replenish ATP:
Phosphagen, glycolysis, oxidative system
short-term, high-intensity activities (e.g.,
resistance training and sprinting)
Phosphagen system
active at the start of all exercise regardless of
intensity
• Creatine kinase catalyzes the synthesis of ATP
from CP and ADP
Phosphagen system
The breakdown of
carbohydrates—either
glycogen stored in the
muscle or glucose
delivered in the blood—
to resynthesize AT
Glycolysis
The end result of glycolysis (pyruvate) may
proceed in one of two directions:
- Pyruvate can be converted to lactate
• Anaerobic glycolysis, faster, shorter duration - Pyruvate can be shuttled into the mitochondria
• Aerobic glycolysis (Krebs cycle), slower, longer duration
Marker of anaerobic threshold
Lactate threshold
The exercise intensity or relative intensity at which blood lactate begins
an abrupt increase above the baseline concentration
LACTATE THRESHOLD in untrained individuals
50% to 60% VO2max
Lactate threshold in aerobically trained athletes
70-80%
0-6 second extremely high
Phosphagen
6-30sec very high
Phosphagen and glycolysis
Greater than 3 min, low
Oxidative
2-3 min, moderate
Fast glycolysis and oxidative
Oxidative system=
Aerobic
Primary source of ATP at
rest and during low-
intensity activities
Oxidative (Aerobic)
Primarily uses
carbohydrates and fats
Oxidative (aerobic system)
Creatine phosphate can decrease markedly
(50-70%) during the
first stage (5-30 seconds) of high-
intensity exercise and can be almost eliminated as a
result of very intense exercise to exhaustion
Complete resynthesis of ATP appears to occur within
3-5 min
complete creatine phosphate
resynthesis can occur within
8 minutes
The rate of glycogen depletion is related to
Exercise intensity
• >60% of VO2max, muscle glycogen becomes more
Important
Repletion of muscle glycogen during recovery is related to
Postexercise carbohydrate ingestion
EPOC =
Excess postexercise oxygen consumption
Oxygen uptake above resting values used to restore the body to the preexercise condition; also called postexercise oxygen uptake, oxygen debt, or recovery O2
Excess postexercise oxygen consumption (EPOC)
Guidelines and special
considerations
– Body mechanics of the
therapist – Application of manual
resistance and
stabilization – Verbal commands
Manual resistance
Elastic resistance, free weights, cables, body weight
Mechanical resistance
Muscle contracts and produces force without visible joint movement
Isometric exercise
Muscle-setting exercises • Stabilization exercises • Multiple-angle isometrics
– Characteristics and effects
• Intensity of muscle contraction
• Duration of muscle activation
• Repetitive contractions
• Joint angle and mode specificity
• Sources of resistance
Isometric exercise
Constant resistance
Isotonic
Constant velocity (speed)
• Training effects and
– Range and selection of
carryover to function
training velocities – Limitations in carryover – Reciprocal versus isolated
• Special considerations
muscle training for isokinetic training
– Specificity of training – Availability of equipment
– Compressive forces on joints – Appropriate set up
– Accommodation to fatigue – Initiation and
– Accommodation to a painful
progression of isokinetic arc
training during rehabilitation
Isokinetic exercise
Inflammation
– Inflammatory
neuromuscular disease – Inflammatory muscular
disease – Acute joint inflammation
• Severe cardiopulmonary
disease
Precautions and contraindications
Central adaptations
– Motor cortex activity increases
with increased load or novelty
– Many neural changes take place
along descending corticospinal
tracts
• Adaptations of motor units
– Increased
• Recruitment
• Rate of firing •
Synchronization of firing
Neural adaptations
• Increased total area •
More dispersed, irregularly shaped synapses and a
greater total length of nerve terminal branching
• Increased end-plate perimeter length and area, as
well as greater dispersion of acetylcholine
receptors within the end-plate region
Neuromuscular junction adaptations
increasing its size • facilitating fiber type transitions • enhancing its biochemical and ultra-structural
component
Muscular adaptations
Resistance training results in increases in both
Type I and Type II
Muscle fiber area
Type II fibers have greater increases in size
than
Type 1 fibers
Speed training enhances
Calcium release
Resistance training increases
Angle of pen nation
the threshold
stimulus that initiates
new bone formation
Minimal essential strain
(MES) , 1/10 of the force required to fracture bone
Forces that reach or exceed a threshold stimulus initiate new bone formation in the area experiencing the mechanical strain
Wolffs law
• Volume of loading (FREQUENCY) • Magnitude of the load (INTENSITY) • Rate (speed) of loading (TIME) • Direction of the forces (TYPE)
Stimulating bone growth
The primary stimulus is
the insult from
Mechanical forces
Tissue adaptation is
proportional to
Intensity
Sites of increased strength and load-bearing
capacity
At the junctions between the tendon (and
ligament) and bone surface
– Within the body of the tendon or ligament
– In the network of fascia within skeletal muscle
increase in collagen fibril diameter
Hypertrophy
increase in number of collagen fibrils
Hyperplasia
• Exercise of low to moderate intensity does not
markedly change the
Collagen content of the connective tissue
High-intensity loading results in a
net growth
of the involved connective tissues
Forces should be exerted throughout the
full
range of motion of a joint
How can patients stimulate cartilage adaptations
Weight-bearing forces and complete movement
throughout the range of motion seem to be
essential to maintaining tissue viability
• Moderate aerobic exercise seems adequate for
increasing cartilage thickness
• Strenuous exercise does not appear to cause
degenerative joint disease
Acute anabolic hormonal responses
Upregulation of anabolic hormone receptors
Consistent resistance training may improve the
acute hormonal response to an anaerobic workout
Acute anaerobic exercise results in increased
Cardiac output
– Stroke volume
– Heart rate
– Oxygen uptake
– Systolic blood pressure
– Blood flow to active muscles
Anaerobic training leads to decreases or no
change in
Resting HR and BP
Heavier loads are most
effective for
Fiber recruitment
Heavy resistance with
slow velocities =
Inc max strength
High velocity training =
Inc power
Peak power output is maximized during the
jump squat with loads corresponding to
30%
to 60% of squat 1RM
For the upper body, peak power output can be
maximized during the ballistic bench press
throw using loads corresponding to
46% to
62% of 1RM bench press
Local muscular endurance causes increased
– fiber type transitions – buffering capacity – resistance to fatigue – metabolic enzyme activity
Increase fat-free mass and reduce body fat by
1% to 9%
Body composition
Body composition inc
– lean tissue mass – daily metabolic rate – energy expenditure
Combination of
resistance training and
stretching appears to be
Most effective for
Flexibility
Excessive frequency, volume, or intensity of
training that results in extreme fatigue, illness,
or injury
Overtraining
Excessive training on a short-term basis is
called
Overreaching
Psychological effects:
– decreased desire to train
– decreased joy from training
Markers of overtraining
Acute epinephrine and norepinephrine increases
beyond normal exercise-induced levels
Sympathetic overtraining syndrome
– Chronic use of high intensity or high volume or a
combination of the two – Too rapid a rate of progression
Mistakes lead to anaerobic overtraining
Decrement in performance and loss of
accumulated physiological adaptations
following the cessation of anaerobic training
• Can also occur when there is a substantial
decrease in training frequency, volume, or
intensity
Detraining
When training or detraining one side, the
contralateral side will exhibit some
hypertrophy or atrophy
Motor overflow
Elastic energy in the
musculotendinous
components is increased
with a
RAPID STRETCH THEN STORED
If a concentric muscle action
follows immediately, the
stored energy is released,
increasing the
TOTAL FORCE PRODUCTION
This model involves
potentiation (change in the
force–velocity characteristics of
the muscle’s contractile
components caused by stretch)
of the concentric muscle action
by use of the stretch reflex
NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL MODEL
the body’s
involuntary response to an
external stimulus that stretches
the muscles
STRETCH REFLEX
STRETCH OF THE AGONIST MUSCLE
ECCENTRIC
PAUSE BTWN PHASES 1 AND 2 (ALPHA MOTOR NEURONS)
AMORTIZATION
42 TO 72 HOURS BETWEEN
PLYOMETRIC SESSIONS
2 TO 3 PLYOMETRIC SESSIONS PER WEEK
ORDER OF EXERCISE
ACTIVE/PASSIVE WARM UP
POWER
NONPOWER PRIMARY
ADJUNCTIVE
requires the ability to accelerate and
reach maximal velocity
SPEED
performance requires the use of
perceptual–cognitive ability in combination
with the ability to decelerate and then
reaccelerate in an intended direction
AGILITY
is the change in momentum resulting from a force,
measured as the product of force and time.
IMPULSE
The development of maximal force in minimal time, typically
used as an index of explosive strength.
RATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENT
INC IN NEURAL DRIVE
contribute to increases in the athlete’s RFD and
impulse generation
The amount of blood
pumped by the heart in liters per minute
(SV × HR)
CARDIAC OUTPUT
From rest to steady-state aerobic exercise, cardiac
output initially
increases rapidly, then more
gradually, and subsequently reaches a plateau
With maximal exercise, cardiac output may
increase to
4 TIMES THE RESTING LEVEL
The quantity of blood ejected
with each beat • End-diastolic volume is significantly increased.
STROKE VOLUME
HEART RATE INC LINEARLY WITH
INC IN INTENSITY
The greatest amount of oxygen
that can be used at the cellular level for the entire body
MAX OXYGEN UPTAKE
Estimated at 3.5 ml
of oxygen per kilogram of body weight per minute (ml·kg–
1·min–1); this value is defined as 1 metabolic equivalent
(MET)
RESTING OXYGEN UPTAKE
Increases during an acute bout of aerobic exercise
RESTING OXYEGN UPTAKE
Most oxygen in blood is carried by
HEMOGLOBIN
Most carbon dioxide removal is from its combination with
water and delivery to the lungs in the form of
BICARBONATE
enough oxygen is
available that lactic acid does not accumulate because the
removal rate is greater than or equal to the production rate
LOW TO MODERATE INTENSITY EXERCISE
Level at which blood lactate begins to show an increase is
the
onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA)
Systolic blood pressure estimates the
pressure
exerted against the arterial walls as blood is
forcefully ejected during ventricular contraction
used to estimate the
pressure exerted against the arterial walls when no
blood is being forcefully ejected through the
vessels
DIASTOLIC BLOOD
Increased parasympathetic tone leads to
decreases in
resting and submaximal exercise
heart rates
