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Bio 1113.01 Final > Final > Flashcards

Final Flashcards

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1
Q

Who discovered meiosis?

A

Gregor Mendel

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2
Q

What is an allele?

A

Alternate versions of a gene

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3
Q

What is a genotype?

A

The actual makeup of a gene (Gg, Yy, Ss)

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4
Q

What is a phenotype?

A

Observable traits (Hair color, eye color)

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5
Q

What is the principle of segregation?

A

The idea that each parent has equal opportunities of passing down either allele they have

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6
Q

Incomplete Dominance?

A

Neither allele is fully expressed

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7
Q

Codominance

A

Both alleles are expressed (speckled colors, blood types)

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8
Q

Polygenic inheritance

A

Phenotypes all working at once (height, eye color, skin color)

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9
Q

Sex-linked genes

A

Genes that are carried on the x or y chromosomes

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10
Q

What is epistasis?

A

One’s gene expressions masking another gene (baldness, widow’s peak)

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11
Q

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

A

Disease allele where it cannot make the enzyme to break down phenylalanine and causes toxic by-products. Avoid phenylalanine in the environment

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12
Q

Semiconservative

A

Each daughter DNA helix contains 1 complete template strand and 1 completely new strand

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13
Q

Conservative

A

Of 2 daughter DNA helicases, 1 is new and 1 is old

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14
Q

Disperse

A

Each daughter DNA molecules contains strands that are a mix of old and new DNA

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15
Q

DNA polymerase

A

Many types of polymerases, but all build DNA by connecting nucleotides

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16
Q

Prior to DNA polymerase

A
  1. Helicase opens double helix
  2. Single-stranded DNA binding proteins stabilize
  3. Topoisomerase relieves twisting strain
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17
Q

Primase

A

Makes an RNA primer as a starting point, since DNA polymerase cannot start from scratch

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18
Q

Lagging strand vs. leading strand

A

The leading strand continuously replicates towards the fork, lagging strand replicates away from the fork. The lagging strand is always shorter than the leading strand

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19
Q

Telomere

A

Located at the end of the chromosomes

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20
Q

Telomerase

A

An enzyme present in some cells that re-lengthen the telomere so more cell division can occur

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21
Q

Non-coding DNA

A

Can be in between coding or in the middle of a sequence, has functions but not as important

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22
Q

Transcription

A

Happens before translation. Turns a DNA sequence into a complementary RNA sequence in the nucleus.

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23
Q

Translation

A

Turns RNA sequences into a sequence of amino acids in order to create proteins. In cytoplasm and uses ribosomes.

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24
Q

mRNA (messenger)

A

The first step, a sequence of RNA that carries information specifying a certain amino acid sequence

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25
Q

rRNA (ribosomal)

A

Second step, RNA that forms part of the ribosomes that are made of RNA and proteins

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26
Q

tRNA (transfer)

A

RNA that binds to the mRNA on one end and an amino acid on the other end, the link between mRNA and amino acids

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27
Q

Codon

A

3 bases of RNA that code for an amino acid (AUG)

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28
Q

Mutations

A

Permanent alterations to DNA

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29
Q

Mismatch Repairs

A

Work to reduce mistakes in DNA replication

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30
Q

What are mutations

A

The raw material of evolution

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31
Q

Point Mutations

A

Affect one or a small number of base pairs

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32
Q

Silent mutations

A

Substitution that leads to a codon coding for the same amino acid, mostly on the 3rd base of a codon

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33
Q

Missense mutation

A

Usually just on one amino acid, but can have a great affect

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34
Q

What are the three steps of transcription and translation?

A
  1. initiation 2. elongation 3. termination
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35
Q

Describe protein synthesis briefly

A
  1. RNA polymerase connects RNA bases to DNA, making mRNA
  2. mRNA editing often to make the message
  3. Leaves the nucleus in eukaryotic cells
  4. Moves onto rRNA to translation
  5. tRNA brings amino acids together to create proteins
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36
Q

What speeds up protein synthesis?

A

Ribosomes being able to translate an mRNA at the same time

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37
Q

Introns

A

Non-coding DNA that gets removed

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38
Q

Exons

A

The remaining sections that can be put together as mRNA

39
Q

Alternative Splicing

A

The idea that 1 DNA sequence can code for many versions of a protein

40
Q

What is translation catalyzed by?

A

Ribosomes

41
Q

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases

A

Adds amino acids to tRNA

42
Q

True or False, proteins take a lot of energy to make?

A

True

43
Q

Repressors

A

Negative control and stops transcription

44
Q

Activators

A

positive control and triggers transcription

45
Q

Bacteria operons

A

A set of genes that are located next to each other and translated as a single mRNA

46
Q

Bacteria regulons

A

Disparate genes that share the same regulatory proteins/ sequences

47
Q

Lac operon

A

lactose metabolism

48
Q

Trp operon

A

corepressor with negative feedback

49
Q

What is epigenetics?

A

Gene expression is altered by factors other than the cells’ DNA, which are easily reversible and apparent in cancer

50
Q

Histones

A

A type of protein that helps organize DNA into nucleosomes that are positively charged with lysines and arginines

51
Q

Does drug abuse change gene expression?

A

Yes and reward pathways that create memories

52
Q

Genomic imprinting

A

You inherit this from Mom and Dad, but only get the working copies. Can be bad if done incorrectly

53
Q

Embryonic stem cells

A

Since epigenetic tags aren’t placed, cells can become any type of cell

54
Q

Adult stem cells

A

Already specialized cells so only can become a small number of cells

55
Q

Where are plant stem cells found?

A

In the meristem

56
Q

What happens when stem cells divide?

A

One becomes a daughter cell and the other differentiates and then specializes

57
Q

Why are stem cells so popular?

A

They can become any type of cell and patients immune systems won’t reject them

58
Q

Therapeutic cloning

A

Using somatic cell nuclear transfer to make embryonic stem cells

59
Q

What are the downsides of therapeutic cloning?

A

It is expensive, can be unethical, can cause religious issues

60
Q

Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS)

A

Can be considered the best of both worlds. They have the same genetics as the patient, remove epigenetic tags, less expensive.

61
Q

What are the downsides of Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS)?

A

The safety is still unknown

62
Q

What does it mean when cells are determined?

A

They have a destined type of cell that they are on the path to becoming, once determined, they are soon to be specialized so will not become a different type of cell unless cancerous.

63
Q

What are master regulators?

A

Gene products that unleash a series of events to produce specialized cells, MyOD is the master regulator of muscle cell development

64
Q

Apoptosis

A

Programmed cell death

65
Q

Is DNA negatively or positively charged?

A

negatively

66
Q

Are histones negatively or positively charged?

A

Positively

67
Q

What are the building blocks of carbohydrates?

A

Monosaccharides (glycogen, cellulose, and starch are big)

68
Q

What are the building blocks or proteins?

A

Amino acids (enzymes speed up reactions)

69
Q

What are the building blocks of nucleic acids?

A

Nucleotides (DNA, RNA, and ATP)

70
Q

What are the building blocks of lipids?

A

Fatty acids and triglycerides (semipermeable membranes)

71
Q

What is the main difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes?

A

Eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles; prokaryotes do not. Prokaryotes are archaea and bacteria; eukaryotes are everything else

72
Q

What is the difference between facilitated diffusion and active transport?

A

Facilitated diffusion will occur down a gradient and requires no energy. Active transport often goes against the gradient and requires energy.

73
Q

Where does cellular respiration occur in eukaryotes?

A

Mitochondria

74
Q

Can viruses reproduce on their own?

A

No; they require the host cell’s genetic makeup to reproduce. Retroviruses inject their genetic material into a host’s DNA.

75
Q

What are the two reasons for cell signaling?

A
  1. Regulating protein synthesis
  2. Activating proteins already present in the cell.
76
Q

What is signal transduction?

A

It amplifies the signal in cells through phosphorylation by protein kinases.

77
Q

Briefly describe the steps of cellular respiration.

A
  1. The first few stages allow for the release of energy from glucose to NADH and FADH2 by the transfer of electrons
  2. Glycolysis then occurs where it takes glucose and breaks it into two pyruvate molecules while also forming 2 ATP and donating electrons to NAD+ to form the NADH
  3. Pyruvate processing produces CO2, NADH, and Acetyl CoA
  4. The citric acid cycle then completes the oxidation of glucose by transferring more electrons to form NADH and FADH2
  5. The final step takes the electrons from NADH and FADH2 to create an electrochemical gradient of protons
78
Q

What is the electron transport chain?

A

A series of electron carriers that differ in how strongly they bind to electrons

79
Q

What is the purpose of the proton gradient (H+)?

A

It is used to power the production of more ATP which is called oxidative phosphorylation.

80
Q

What is sigma?

A

A subunit of bacterial RNA polymerase

81
Q

How many stages of photosynthesis are there?

A

two

82
Q

Where do light-capturing reactions store energy?

A

In ATP and NADPH

83
Q

What colors do green absorb?

A

Purple/blue and red

84
Q

What is the Calvin cycle and what does it produce?

A

It uses the energy in ATP and NADPH to build carbs from CO2 and produces 3-carbon sugar G3P to build other molecules

85
Q

What is PCR and its purpose/ benefits

A

Polymerase chain reaction which stretches DNA to be copied/amplified billions of time, it is quick

86
Q

What is gel electrophoresis?

A

The separation of molecules based on size

87
Q

What is the most powerful form of gene editing?

A

CRISPR/Cas9 it is cheaper, faster, easier, more precise

88
Q

What is a genome?

A

All genetic material in a cell (most have many chromosomes)

89
Q

What is a chromosome?

A

Continuous strands of double-stranded DNA

90
Q

What is a chromatid

A

The little half of a chromosome

91
Q

What is the difference between haploid and diploid?

A

Diploid is a pair of each chromosome (2), haploid is one of each chromosome (1)

92
Q

What is the difference between meiosis and mitosis

A

Mitosis results in two identical cells, meiosis has two rounds of division and produces 4 genetically different cells. Meiosis 1 splits the homologous pairs, 2 splits the sister chromatids.

93
Q

What does aneuploidy mean?

A

When individuals do not have the typical number of chromosomes for their species

94
Q

What is nondisjunction?

A

when chromosomes are not split properly?

Bio 1113.01 Final (1 decks)

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