final Flashcards
1
Q
_____ is the scientific study of fossils.
A
paleontology
2
Q
Human activities can influence the ______ and ______ of geologic processes and events.
A
magnitude and frequency
3
Q
Physical geology contains the subfields of
A
geomorphology, hydrology, and sedimentology.
4
Q
_____ is the term used to describe the increase in the acidity of the oceans.
A
Ocean acidification
5
Q
Which of the following resources is used to make cement?
A
limestone
6
Q
The calendar of Earth’s history is called
A
geologic time scale
7
Q
____ is the collection of information and data about distant objects or environments.
A
Remote sensing
8
Q
which era are we currently in?
A
Cenozoic
9
Q
____ is a technique where the decay rate of radioactive isotopes is measured and used to determine the age of geologic material
A
radiometric dating
10
Q
A rock that is 180 million years old comes from the ______ period
A
Jurassic
11
Q
What is the ultimate source for naturally occurring carbon-14?
A
cosmic ray collisions and neutron capture involving nitrogen
12
Q
What is the effective maximum range for carbon-14 dating?
A
70,000 years
13
Q
___ was a guiding doctrine used to explain the formation of Earth’s features as results of sudden, often worldwide disasters produced by unknowable cause that no longer operate
A
Catastrophism
14
Q
what is an example of a numerical date?
A
a meteorite impacted the earth 65 million years ago.
15
Q
what is the half-life of potassium-40?
A
1.3 billion years
16
Q
a deposit of volcanic tuff contains the isotope potassium-40, which is slowly decaying into argon-40. how might the apparent age of the sample be affected if the volcanic tuff is heated and remains heated for a long period of time?
A
the sample will appear younger than it really is
17
Q
in radioactive decay, an unstable ____ isotope will decay into a stable ____ isotope.
A
parent, daughter
18
Q
the fossil record is biased toward
A
preserving organisms with hard parts
19
Q
An interval of time between ice ages is referred to as a(n) ______ period.
A
interglacial
20
Q
In ~11,000 years, the North Pole will be pointing at __________.
A
Vega
21
Q
Which of the following refers to the variation in the Earth’s orbit around the Sun and its influence on past climate fluctuations?
A
eccentricity
21
Q
The beginning of the Industrial Revolution is clearly recorded in ice cores as an
A
increase in pollution
21
Q
The majority of Earth’s freshwater is located
A
ice sheets and glaciers (polar ice)
21
Q
What is not part of the Milankovitch Cycle?
A
isostasy
21
When did the last ice age end?
~10,000 years ago
21
During the Mississippian period, Earth’s average global temperature was
~22°C.
21
What is the definition of a scientific theory?
a well-tested and widely accepted view that explains observable facts
22
Organized procedure that involves making measurements and observations
experiment
22
A system is
any organized entity that consists of interrelated and interacting components
22
_____ is a description of how scientists measure natural phenomena and rigorously test new ideas about how some part of the natural world works.
The scientific method
22
Factor in an experiment that can be manipulated by the experimenter
independent variable
22
Factor in an experiment that can change if other factors are changed
dependent variable
23
What is the relationship between the four subsystems of Earth?
The four subsystems overlap and interact with each other.
23
The mean residence time for water in permafrost is ______ than the mean residence time for water in lakes and streams.
longer
23
___ is the fundamental ingredient for life on Earth
water
23
The only substance on Earth that occurs naturally as a liquid, a solid, and a gas is
water
23
Interception of precipitation by vegetation allows
greater infiltration
24
Long narrow grooves gouged into the rock by glacial erosion are called
striations
25
Humans are considered to be part of which of Earth’s four subsystems?
biosphere
26
Liquid water is transformed into water vapor through
transpiration and evaporation
27
Glacial ice always moves in a
downward direction
27
The average temperature on the moon is _______ whereas the average temperature on Earth is __________. Though they are about the same distance from the sun, the __________ keeps Earth warm.
-18 °C; 15 °C; greenhouse effect
28
Rainwater will combine with which atmospheric gas in order to create carbonic acid?
carbon dioxide
29
Landforms created by water in streams and rivers are called
fluvial landforms
30
What was the first element to be formed after the "big bang"?
hydrogen
31
A region around a host star where a planet with sufficient atmospheric pressure can maintain liquid water on its surface is known as a
habitable zone
31
Earth is _____________ from the Sun.
~8 light minutes, ~93 million miles
32
A radio wave can have a wavelength the size of a
football field
32
Proxima Centauri is _____ from Earth.
~ 4.2 light years
33
The constant path that Earth travels in its orbit around the Sun describes a surface called the plane of the
ecliptic
33
A(n) ________ is defined as a cataclysmic, explosive death of a star
supernova
34
How many planets are in our Solar System?
8
35
The Sun is described as a
main sequence star
36
Earth revolves around the Sun in a _______ direction
counterclockwise
37
The shortest wavelength of visible light falls at about _____ nanometers and is ________.
375; violet
37
list the correct order of the terrestrial planets when moving away from the sun
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
38
list the correct order of the gas giants when moving away from the sun
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
39
The accumulation of particles and material into a massive object by gravitationally attracting more matter is a process known as
accretion
39
A light year is
the distance light travels in one year
40
The point in the Earth’s orbit where it is closest to the Sun is called
perihelion
41
The process of ________ is responsible for the energy generated by the Sun
nuclear fusion
41
What is a planetesimal?
Rocky material accreted through repeated collisions
42
The atomic number of uranium is
92
42
What is the name of the star in our solar system?
the Sun
43
Light travels _____ miles in one year
~6 trillion
44
What caused our solar nebula to contract and spin, eventually creating the planets
Gravitational interactions between particles
45
The instrument used to measure and record an earthquake is a
seismograph
46
______ attempts to explain the formation of the solar system.
The nebular theory
46
Regions where seismographs do not record P and/or S waves are called
seismic shadow zones
47
What is the depth of the deepest well on Earth?
12 km. Russia
48
put the waves in order from slowest to quickest
surface waves, S-waves, P-waves
49
An isotope of oxygen has 8 protons, 10 neutrons, and 8 electrons. What is the atomic mass of this isotope?
18
50
What is the charge of a single proton?
+1
51
Outside of the crust, the layer that scientists know the most about is the mantle. Other than via seismic waves, how else do geologists obtain information about the composition of the mantle?
volcanoes
52
What is not one of the three compositionally distinct layers of the Earth's interior?
lower mantle
53
The interior of the Earth is divided into roughly spherical layers of differing
density
54
Na
Sodium
55
Ca
Calcium
56
Fe
Iron
57
K
Potassium
58
Si
Silicon
59
Mg
Magnesium
60
What is the age of the oldest radiometrically dated rocks yet discovered on the planet (located in Canada)?
4 billion years old
61
Since temperatures in Earth increase with depth, why is the inner core solid?
The pressures in the core are immense and keep it in a solid state despite the temperature.
62
Continents have a density of ________ and are made of ________ rock
2.7 g/cm3; granite
63
Ferromagnesian minerals contain
magnesium and iron
63
A ________ occurs when an iron-rich fluid in the core is electrically charged and flowing, which generates a magnetic field
geodynamo
64
The composition of the upper mantle is defined by ________
peridotite
64
What is the asthenosphere?
A comparatively weak layer in the upper mantle
65
The ________ layer is thought to be a highly variable layer with large variations in composition as well as temperature
D"
65
The Mohorovičić discontinuity or Moho was discovered based on
a sharp change in seismic velocities.
66
Which two minerals define a felsic composition?
Quartz and potassium feldspar
67
A fine-grained mafic rock is
basalt
68
Which ferromagnesian mineral is believed to constitute up to 50 percent of the mantle?
olivine
68
What three components make up most magmas?
liquid portion, solid portion, gaseous portion
69
What is necessary for a mineral to cement rock grains together?
The cement mineral must be dissolved in water.
69
Which minerals are the main constituents in most sedimentary rocks?
Quartz and clay minerals
70
A ________ describes the observation of successive changes in a laterally continuous sedimentary layer that are visible and are interpreted as a result of many depositional processes taking place over a large area.
facies
70
________ is a biochemical sedimentary rock that often forms in carbonate reefs.
Coquina
71
_____ describes the range in particle sizes in a detrital sedimentary rock
sorting
72
What is diagenesis?
The changes that convert sediments to sedimentary rocks after deposition
73
in situ
in place
74
What trace material produces red colors in some sandstones
iron oxide
74
Rocks formed by the solid-state transformation of minerals in a preexisting rock due to elevated temperature, pressure and/or hot fluids are called
metamorphic rocks
75
The ____________ is the idea or concept that ancient life forms succeeded each other in a definite, evolutionary pattern and that the contained assemblage of fossils can determine geologic ages of strata
law of fossil succession
76
Turbidity currents deposit sediment on the _____
continental rise
76
When rocks are _____, several adjacent layers were deposited without interruption
conformable
77
What is stratigraphic correlation?
Matching up rocks of similar age in different regions
78
Passive margins such as ________ are characterized by minimal tectonic activity, but abundant weathering and erosion processes.
the East Coast of the United States
79
______ is produced when a conglomerate is subjected to metamorphism that involves differential stress
a metaconglomerate
80
Hawaii is the result of a
hot spot
80
what physical feature represents the transition from the continent to the ocean basin
the continental slope
81
Bathymetry is
the study of the "beds" or "floors" of water bodies such as oceans, lakes, and rivers
82
Which scientist is credited with developing the law of superposition
Nicholas Steno
83
By putting events in order, scientists can use the order to determine
how long ago certain geologic events took place
84
Which type of plate boundary most commonly produces metamorphism
convergent
85
What evidence found in modern day tropical regions of southern Africa and South America most strongly supports the hypothesis that the continents were once joined?
glacial debris
85
Samples from the seafloor around the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise show that both areas have been creating new oceanic lithosphere in the last five million years. Samples from the East Pacific Rise show the five-million-year-old seafloor is three times as wide as similarly aged material from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. What does this say about the rate of seafloor spreading in the East Pacific?
The seafloor at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is growing more slowly than the East Pacific Rise.
85
In which layer of the Earth does the convection necessary for plate motion occur?
mantle
85
________ can produce intricately folded rocks
Differential stress
86
When did Pangea begin to spilt apart?
~200 million years ago (mesozoic era, triassic-jurassic periods)
87
Most places that experience earthquakes are located near
tectonic plate boundaries
87
What best explains the global distribution of plant species, such as the Glossopteris, during the Mesozoic?
The landmasses were joined and the plant had a large geographic extent
87
The North American plate is predominantly
Continental lithosphere
88
7 major tectonic plates
North American plate
South America plate
Pacific plate
African plate
Antarctic plate
Eurasian plate
Indo-Australian plate
89
The Pacific plate is predominantly
Oceanic lithosphere
90
The Nazca plate is predominantly
Oceanic lithosphere
91
The Philippine plate is predominantly
Oceanic lithosphere
92
The African plate is predominantly
Continental lithosphere
93
The Eurasian plate is predominantly
Continental lithosphere
94
What direction was the Pacific plate moving between 65 and 43 million years ago?
North
95
What direction has the Pacific plate been moving for the last 40 million years?
Northwest
96
As the island of Hawaii continues to move away from the mantle plume, a new submarine volcano will be created. Off which coast would you expect the new submarine volcano to be forming?
Southeast coast
97
Steno's Laws use what type of dating?
Relative
98
If an igneous rock is light in color, it's composition is
felsic
99
An example of coarse-grained mafic rock is
gabbro
100
What type of environment will most likely have the presence of calcite cement?
semi-arid/arid climates
101
What creates small holes found in a vesicular texture?
volatiles
102
What category of igneous rock is Andesite?
Intermediate
103
Lava flows _______ the surface; Magma flows ______ the surface.
above; below
104
What is the age of the oldest radiometrically dated rocks we have so far discovered on Earth, located in Canada?
4 Billion Years
105
A disconformity is a type of unconformity where
the layers of rock are parallel
106
(Match the rock to its respective composition)
Granite
Felsic
106
The easiest way to distinguish a sedimentary rock from other types is by its
bedding
107
Active continental margins do not have a very pronounced
continental slope
108
Earthquakes caused by isostatic adjustments typically are a _____ magnitude than earthquakes at tectonic boundaries.
lesser
109
(Match the rock to its respective composition)
Andesite
Intermediate
110
(Match the rock to its respective composition)
Gabbro
Mafic
111
(Match the rock to its respective composition)
Peridotite
Ultramafic
111
Compaction and cementation _______ the porosity of a sedimentary rock
decrease
112
Relatively speaking, which is the finest grained clastic category listed?
Gravel
Silt
Clay
Sand
Clay
112
The _______ is an excellent demonstration for all types of unconformities
Grand Canyon
112
When strata is conformable, it is ________ without interruption.
deposited
112
The Greek word lithos means
rock
113
What is stratigraphic correlation?
Matching up rocks of similar age in different regions
114
Put the clastic grain sizes in order of most fine-grained to most coarse-grained
Clay, Silt, Sand, Gravel
115
Which igneous rock texture is associated with fluid-rich environments and has exceptionally large crystals?
Pegmatite
116
What is the term for the process by which sediment becomes rock?
Lithification
117
What is a characteristic of metamorphic rocks?
They are formed by the alteration of pre-existing rock deep within Earth (but still in the solid state)
118
What is the metamorphic rock for shale?
Slate
119
What is the primary difference between intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks?
their grain size
120
What is an example of a pyroxene?
augite
120
What is the primary mineral composition of a mafic rock?
Pyroxene and Plagioclase Feldspar
121
what type of unconformity occurs when sedimentary rocks are deposited on eroded or weathered igneous or metamorphic rocks?
Nonconformity
122
What type of unconformity is formed when sedimentary rock layers are deposited on eroded, tilted, or folded layers?
Angular Unconformity
123
What rocks is likely to have a pyroclastic texture?
Tuff
124
What is an example of a chemical sedimentary rock?
limestone
125
Current ripple marks are
asymmetrical
126
What is the primary type of organic material in
organic sedimentary rocks?
carbon
127
Mid-oceanic ridges are relatively ____ due to the processes that form new crust.
warm
127
During the last ice age, sea level was lower exposing more of the _____
continental shelf
128
What is the parent rock of gneiss?
granite
129
The major feature of the ocean floor that winds over 70,000 km around the planet is known as
mid-oceanic ridges
130
Which type of stream is able to transport silt and clay (i.e. smaller grain sizes)?
Meandering
131
Cratons are tectonically _______ areas of the continents
passive
132
Coarse-grained sediments such as gravel and coarse sand is characteristic of
glacial environments
133
_______ is the study of floors/beds of water bodies
Bathymetry
134
What type of boundary more commonly produces metamorphism?
convergence
135
If a stream is described as carrying coarse (i.e. larger) grain sizes such as gravel, it would be a
Braided Stream
136
What type of bedding is known for their sediments gradually changing from coarse at the bottom layer to fine at the top layer?
graded bedding
136
What feature represents the transition between ocean basins and continents?
continental slope
137
_______ margins are near plate boundaries
Active
138
The size of the continental shelf can increase due to deposition during
isostatic rebound
139
The part of the cratons that are covered in sedimentary rocks are known as
stable platforms
140
The Appalachian Mountains finished coming together during the
Paleozoic Era
141
The East Coast is an example of a _______ margin
passive
142
The principal source of atmospheric moisture is
the ocean
143
as a star moves away from earth, its light is ______ due to the Doppler effect
red-shifted
144
earth's average surface temperature is
~14 °C
145
A glacier is a _____ that forms over hundreds or thousands of years
thick ice mass
146
_____ weathering is when physical forces break rock into smaller and smaller pieces
physical
147
_____ describes the formation of the universe
the Big Bang Theory
148
what describes the relationship between the wavelength and frequency of electromagnetic energy?
as wavelength increases, frequency decreases
149
what type of electromagnetic energy is not harmful to living things such as plant life and humans?
radio waves
150
what is not an agent of erosion?
heat
151
the greenhouse effect refers to the
process through which Earth's lower atmosphere is warmed because longwave radiation from Earth is trapped by greenhouse gases
152
which layer of the atmosphere is the coldest of the four?
mesosphere
153
any type of rock may be
transformed into another type of rock
154
felsic magma has a ____ silica content
high
155
in an igneous rock with a phaneritic texture, the minerals grains are
visible to the unaided eye
156
rocks exposed at the surface slowly deteriorate by
weathering
157
many marine organisms such as coral, clams, oysters, and foraminifera produce the mineral substance ______, which will later become limestone.
calcite
158
which mineral group makes up most igneous rocks?
silicates
159
______ is molten rock that is below the Earth's surface and retains most of its volcanic gases
magma
160
what best describes a pegmatitic texture?
large crystals that form in a fluid-rich environment late in crystallization
160
which mineral cements together grains in sandstone?
calcite
160
mineralogy
the chemistry, crystal structure, and physical properties of minerals
161
volcanology
volcanoes and volcanic events
161
how do you distinguish a sedimentary rock from other types?
its bedding
162
sedimentology
sedimentary rocks and the processes that form them
163
paleoclimatology
ancient climates throughout geologic time
164
hydrology
the distribution and movement of water both on and below the Earth's surface
165
proxy data
data used to study a condition/situation where there is no direct evidence
166
2 examples of proxy data used in paleoclimatology
marine sediments, fossil pollen
167
3 causes of the current rise in mean sea level
loss of sheets and glaciers, thermal expansion, reduction of liquid water stored on land
168
what is high tide flooding (aka King tide flooding)?
exceptionally high tides that causes flooding
168
where in the moon's orbit around the earth are king tides likely to form?
perigee (when the moon and earth are closest in orbit)
169
2 moon phases that contribute to the formation of King tides
new/full moon, perigee
170
during the Mississippian, global temp was closest to
22 °C
(abundant organic material, led to preservation, warm temps, fossil fuels we used today were deposited during this time)
170
what epoch are we in
holocene (the last ~10,000 years, modern region/climate)
171
what period are we in
quaternary (last 2.58 million years)
172
what eon are we in
Phanerozoic
173
orbital variations
eccentricity!!! the shape of earth's orbit. 100,00 year cycle, climate change today happens way more rapidly than this.
174
milankovitch cycles describe
the long-term, collective effects of changes in the Earth's position relative to the Sun and its role on climate over thousands of years.
it focuses on glacial and interglacial periods.
focuses on the quaternary period.
175
plane of the ecliptic is the same thing as the
orbital plane
176
tilt obliquity
the degree of axial tilt, 22.1° - 24.5°, the reason we have seasons, plane of the ecliptic, ~40,000 year cycle
177
Anthropocene
proposed epoch that emphasizes human impact (anthro=human), this isn't on the geologic time scale
177
axial precession
wobble through its axis as earth rotates. 26,000 year cycle. direction of earth's axis, where it points.
178
humans move _______ of rock and sediment every year
100+ gigatons
178
hypothesis
proposed explanation based on limited evidence, a starting point for further investigation, must be testable.
179
experiment
scientific procedure to make a discovery, test a hypothesis, or demonstrate a known fact.
180
scientific theory
a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, has withstood rigorous scrutiny (can be modified.. sometimes due to new technology)
181
scientific law
a description (often mathematical) of an observed phenomenon, doesn't explain why the phenomenon exists or what causes it
182
2 sources of energy for the earth system
the sun, heat from earth's interior
183
conduction
transfer of heat through direct contact
184
convection
the distribution of heat in a fluid
185
the ozone layer absorbs
UV radiation
186
the depletion of the stratospheric ozone (ozone hole) took _________ compared to the ___________ _ ___ that it took to form the ozone.
decades; millions of years
187
________ evolved to perform photosynthesis before there was oxygen in our atmosphere
stromatolites (underneath the ocean, it had to interact with iron in the ocean before oxygen is released into the atmosphere)
187
The San Andreas Fault separates which two plates?
North American and Pacific
188
An island arc forms where ____.
oceanic crust collides with oceanic crust
189
Convergent boundaries are considered
destructive boundaries.
190
_____ is the compass direction of the line produced by the intersection of an inclined rock layer with a horizontal plane.
strike
191
How does water get from the surface to the middle of the mantle?
Subducting oceanic lithosphere
192
Which plate boundary is not usually associated with volcanism?
transform
193
You are a seismologist and are driving out to a location where a fault has recently shifted. When you arrive at the location, you see that the road you are driving on was constructed across the fault line. Because of slippage along the fault, the road ahead has been shifted to the left by 20 feet. What kind of fault is present?
left-lateral strike-slip
193
a cliff or escarpment directly resulting from an uplift along one side of a fault
fault scarp
194
What scenario would best indicate that a thrust fault is present at a location?
Cambrian-aged rocks have been shoved on top of Jurassic-aged rocks.
195
_______ refers to the changes in shape or position of a rock body in response to differential stress.
Deformation
196
Where are the majority of transform boundaries located?
On the ocean floor offsetting segments of oceanic ridge
197
What is a mantle plume?
An upwelling of hot material from the Earth's interior that is cylindrical in shape
197
________ occurs when magnetic minerals in lavas align their magnetic fields with magnetic north, preserving a record of that pole's location at that moment in time.
Preserved magnetism
198
Lava solidifying during a period of reverse polarity will align the magnetic fields of its iron particles toward the ________ pole.
south
199
Along which tectonic boundary is ridge push going to be most important in helping to drive plate motion?
Divergent boundary
200
The shape of Earth’s magnetic field resembles
a bar magnet
201
The Deep River basin formed during the
breakup of Pangea.
201
How did researchers in the mid-twentieth century obtain ocean floor rock and sediment samples in order to determine the age of the seafloor?
Drilling ships
202
What sentence best describes slab pull?
Cold oceanic lithosphere is pulled down into the mantle by gravity.
203
What type of unconformity consists of metamorphic or intrusive igneous rocks being overlain by younger sedimentary rocks?
nonconformity
204
What is the name for the upper layer of the mantle that is hotter and more fluid than the crust?
asthenosphere
204
This word is used to describe an erosional contact between bedding planes
disconformity
205
How many miles does light travel in one year?
~6 trillion
206
Who invented the principle of uniformitarianism?
James Hutton
206
Which of the Milankovitch Theory Cycles discusses changes in Earth’s orbit shape (i.e. more elliptical vs. less elliptical)?
eccentricity
207
About how long did it take for light to be able to be transported across the universe from the initial Big Bang?
380,000 years
208
According to the Theory of Plate Tectonics, what mechanism within Earth causes the tectonic plates to move?
mantle convection
209
Name at least two fossil fuels humans use as an energy source.
coal, oil (petroleum), natural gas
209
Besides Lithium, what other element is used in batteries?
cobalt
210
Give one example of bedrock.
limestone, granite, slate
211
What percentage of freshwater is groundwater?
30%
212
What is the anthropogenic cause of the ozone hole in the stratosphere (depletion of stratospheric ozone)?
CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons), aerosols
213
What is an example of an igneous rocks that is felsic and aphanitic?
rhyolite
214
What is the parent rock for marble?
limestone
215
Give an example of an agent of transport that can move sand-sized particles.
wind, meandering stream, waves
216
ideal gas law
PV=nRT
217
observational study that measures natural variations
natural experiment (ex: petrographic analysis)
218
ice (solid) portion of the hydrosphere
cryosphere
219
old snow that didn't melt
glacial ice
219
water in the atmosphere is important for
transporting heat
220
how much of the total global water is freshwater?
2.5%
220
how much of the total global water is in oceans?
96.5%
221
how much of earth's surface is covered by water?
71%
221
_____ of earths water is salt water.
97%
221
water cycle
evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation (gas to liquid), precipitation
222
process os snow and ice changing into water vapor
sublimation (solid to gas)
223
mean residence time of water in the atmosphere
8 days
223
wave erosion causes
sea stacks, coastline being pushed back
224
how thick is the atmosphere?
300 miles, 480 km
225
the ionosphere filters
x-rays, gamma rays, cosmic energy (solar wind)
225
about 99% of the mass of the atmosphere lies within ____
30 km of the surface (gravity pulls it towards us)
226
the 4 atmospheric layers
thermosphere, mesosphere (contains the ionosphere),
stratosphere (contains the ozone layer)
troposphere
227
charged particles from the sun (creates the Northern lights)
solar wind
228
this atmospheric layer is heated by the surface. as you go up in elevation, it gets colder.
troposphere
228
this atmospheric layer contains the ozone. the temp goes up due to ozone absorbing energy.
stratosphere
229
this atmospheric layer is the coldest.
mesosphere
230
this atmospheric layer is the hottest.
thermosphere
231
what gas is most dominant in the atmosphere?
nitrogen (78%)
231
which element is helpful in the stratosphere, but a pollutant in the troposphere?
O3, ozone
232
overtime, oxygen has built up to be about _____ of the atmosphere
21%
233
_____ converts N2 into usable forms of nitrogen.
nitrogen fixation
234
the noble gas that is 1% of our atmosphere
argon
235
the trace gas that is 0.4% of our atmosphere
carbon dioxide
236
the delicate arch and balanced rock in Utah, Arches National park was caused by
wind erosion
236
what would cause the atmosphere to store more heat?
if the concentration of the greenhouse gases changed (human caused)
237
why are Neil Armstrongs footprints still on the moon?
the moon has no atmosphere, meaning there is no weathering, climate, or erosion.
238
the moon is
non-changing
239
the composition of the Maria (old lava flows) is the same composition of
lava in Hawaii
240
the dark spots on the moon are
old lava flows (Maria)
240
light spots on the moon are called
lunar highlands
241
the geosphere extends from the _____ to the _____ of the Earth. what's the depth?
surface; center. depth of about 6400 km.
242
what is the biggest sub-system of earth?
geosphere
242
which mineral is used for table salt?
halite
243
which mineral is an important source of lead?
galena
244
which mineral is a natural insulator?
sheet mica
244
which mineral is an important source of iron (BIFs)?
hematite
245
which mineral can carbon be stored in?
soil
246
trees that lose their leaves during fall/winter
deciduous
247
what can grow in inhospitable environments and secretes a weak acid that breaks things down (chemical weathering)?
lichens
248
the big bang theory states that the universe originated about ______ years ago.
14 billion years ago
249
what makes up protons and neutrons
quarks
249
in time (hundreds of thousands or maybe millions of years), matter began to cool and condense to form
the first stars and galaxies
250
how old is the solar system?
4.5 billion years old
250
how old is the sun?
4.6 billion years old
251
how old is the milky way?
13.2 billion years old
252
using light to measure electromagnetic energy coming from stars
spectroscopy
252
______ explains that a moving object of energy causes an apparent shift in frequency of light and sound in relation to the observer
the doppler effect.
253
when a moving object of energy is approaching...
when a moving object of energy is receding...
there is a shorter wavelength; there is a longer wavelength.
example -- an ambulance becomes high in pitch as it passes right near you.
253
when a star is coming towards you (approach), energy becomes..
blue-shifted (apparent shift towards the blue side of the spectrum)
254
evidence of the big bang
- very distant star clusters are moving away from us faster than star clusters that are closer to us
- cosmic background radiation is remarkably uniform throughout the universe
255
light from stars are _______, suggesting the universe is expanding
red-shifted (=receding)
256
in 1964, _____ was accidentally found
cosmic background radiation (this is the first light that was able to be transmitted by the universe)
256
number of waves that pass a given point per unit of time
frequency
257
distance between two consecutive wave crests (from one crest to the next, no skipping)
wavelength
258
thermal infrared is
long-wave energy
258
near infrared is
short-wave energy
259
visible light is
short wave energy
260
radiant energy produced by the sun
electromagnetic energy
260
electromagnetic energy is measured in
progressive wavelengths (radio waves, microwaves, infrared, ultraviolet, x-rays, gamma)
261
different chemical compounds give off _____ ___ when they are burned
different colors (fireworks)
261
is all short wave energy harmful?
no!
262
____ has been detected by the dip of light from a star as the planet passes by it.
exoplanets
262
_____ wavelengths carry more energy than ____ wavelengths.
short; long
263
what "tool" can block out the bright light from stars?
James Webb Space Telescope
264
what in our solar system is a natural satellite?
moon
264
distance and gravity have a _____ relationship.
inverse. as distance increases, gravitational pull decreases.
265
pluto was most likely....
captured from the kupier belt
265
belt of asteroids and debris outside of orbit. cold, rocky, unusual orbit.
kupier belt
266
venus rotates
clockwise
266
visible light goes from ____ nm to _____ nm
740 nm to 375 nm
267
what is influenced by the mass of objects and the distance between them?
gravity
267
mass and gravity have a _____ relationship.
direct. as mass increases, gravitational pull increases.
268
we see the sun as it was....
8 minutes ago
269
revolutions means
orbit (not the same as rotation)
270
uranis axis is...... it rotates like a....
tilted at 90° to the plane of the ecliptic. it rotates like a ball.
271
____ planets are
relatively small compared to other planets
warmer due to closeness to the sun
have solid, rocky surfaces
metallic
terrestrial
272
______ planets (aka.. ____ _____)
outer planets
solid core, not solid surfaces
main substance of surface is gas
colder, frozen methane/CO2
water in solid from restrictive to life
Jovian planets, aka gas giants
273
nebula contracted into a flattened, rotating disk that was heated by
the conversion of gravitational energy into thermal energy.
274
coalescence
tiny liquid particles will merge during contact and form larger daughter particles
274
what is the difference between coalescence and accretion?
size. coalescence is small, accretion is big.
274
(nebular theory) once the sun started to shine , it influenced the materials to
concentrate and move out to the outer part of the solar system and form planets
275
jupiter has an IO which is a
volcanic moon
275
the _____ _____ ________ describes that soon after formation of earths solar system (4.6 billion yrs ago), a mars size planetesimal dubbed Theia slammed into earth. what did this impact do?
The giant impact hypothesis. this impact sent chunks of earth and theia into orbit around our young planet, eventually forming the moon.
276
disk of debris accreted to form the
moon
277
center of the nebula, disk center formed the _______.
Sun
277
rotation
spin on axis
278
(nebular theory) as the rest of the disk cooled, tiny particles of
metal, rock, and ice condensed with it.
278
what distinguishes the sun from other planets?
nuclear fusion
279
how many light years would it take to travel across the milky way galaxy?
100,000 light years
279
what are some different types of galaxies?
spiral galaxy, elliptical galaxy, burred spiral galaxy
280
how many light years away is the andromeda galaxy (is a spiral galaxy)?
2.48 billion light years away
281
what type of galaxy is the milky way?
a spiral galaxy
282
earths axial tilt is due to
the theia + earth collision. (giant impact hypothesis)
282
the giant impact hypotheses attempts to explain the formation of
the moon.
283
matter that doesn't interact with anything besides gravity
dark matter
283
andromeda and the milky way will eventually
combine with each other and from an elliptical galaxy
284
reaction in which two or more nuclei collide at a very high speed and join to form a new type of nucleus
nuclear fusion
284
isotopes of hydrogen
deuterium and tritium
285
deuterium and tritium go into fusion, then fusion produces
helium, neutron, energy
286
is everything we see in the night sky stars?
no!
287
until_____, we didn't know of other galaxies aside from the milky way
1920
287
most galaxies probably have a ___________ in the center
supermassive black hole
288
an isotope has the
same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons
289
fuel for fusion in any main sequence star is
hydrogen in its core
290
a neutron has
no charge
291
electrons have
a negative charge
292
an atom has
a nucleus which has protons and neutrons. in shells around the nucleus, it has electrons.
292
protons have a
positive charge
293
________ rise and fall across the suns surface.
bubbling convection cells (each one is about the size of Texas!!!!!!)
294
atomic number of an element
number of protons in the nucleus
294
H
hydrogen, atomic number (1)
295
He
helium, atomic number (2)
296
U
uranium, atomic number (92)
296
Li
lithium, atomic number (3)
297
atomic mass, atomic weight
the number of protons and neutrons (electrons is negligible)
297
does atomic mass take isotopes into account?
yes!
example -- carbon 12 , carbon 14. both protons 6, but different atomic mass.
298
light elements
carbon (C, 6), oxygen (O, 8)
299
heavy elements
iron (FE, 26), nickel (Ni, 28)
300
Au
gold
301
Pb
lead
301
during ______ (time period), all of earth was molten and earth organized itself by density. how did this work?
Hadean.
heavier materials sunk down to the center and would eventually form the core and parts of the mantle.
lighter materials (Si, Al, Ca, Na, and K) rose towards the surface that would form our primitive crust. (no evidence of this crust, plate tectonics destroyed it)
302
the inner core is _____, the outer core is ______
solid; liquid (molten interior)
302
the crust is _____ thick
7 - 70 km
303
separation of different materials from an originally homogenous mixture
differentiation
304
waves of energy generated by an earthquake, explosion, volcanic eruption, large landslide, movement of magma
seismic waves
304
geothermal gradient
as you get deeper into the Earth, temps and pressures get higher.
304
the deepest mine is
4 km. South Africa.
305
seismic waves are generated at the _____ and radiate out (in all directions) through the lithosphere and earths interior.
focus (of the EQ)
306
epicenter
point on earths surface directly above the focus
307
focus
where the EQ actually happens
308
all seismic waves are
created at the same time in the focus, but speed differentiates them
309
granite is an _____ igneous rock
intrusive
309
types of body waves
P- waves (primary waves), first to arrive. travels through solid, liquid, and gas
S- waves (secondary waves). second to arrive. travel only through solids.
310
which seismic wave is the most destructive because they travel near the surface, people, and infrastructure.
surface waves (high amplitude).
310
_____ waves travel in rocks layers just below earths surface.
surface waves (slowest, last to arrive).
311
what rock forms when molten rock (magma, lava) cools and solidifies?
igneous
311
basalt is an _____ igneous rock
extrusive
312
produced by the consolidation of fragments such as ash, once molten blobs, or large angular blocks that were ejected during an explosive volcanic eruption.
pyroclastic (fragmental) texture
(pyro= fire, clast=pieces)
312
extrusive, contains voids left by gas bubbles that escape as lava solidifies.
vesicular texture
(ex. Pumice, felsic, will float in water)
(ex. Scoria, mafic, less likely to float in water)
312
two different rates of cooling. first, relatively slow (big crystals), then magma chamber goes above surface, cooling speeds and forms smaller crystals.
porphorytic
313
what is a type of mica
muscovite
313
mineral in the amphibole group
hornblende
313
cools so rapidly that minerals dont form, composed of unordered atoms.
glassy texture (ex. obsidian)
314
where are braided streams located
near lots of water and courser sediment
314
what is the best agent in terms of sorting?
wind
315
what is the worst transporter?
debris flow, landslide
316
angular edges on grains are from
landslides, debris flows
317
concerned with the order of strata, rock layers, and its relation to geologic time
stratigraphy
317
rounded grains are from
running water, wind
318
transportation reduces the size and angularity of particles, but
doesn't change their general shape
319
law of superposition
youngest material on top
319
law of original horizontality
layers of sed. rock are originally deposited flat
319
law of lateral continuity
layers of rock are continuous until they encounter other solid bodies that block their deposition or until they are acted upon by agent that appeared after deposition took place.
320
law of cross cutting relationships
rock layers A and B must be older than the intrusion (C) that disturbs them.
(reinforced by James Hutton, helps relative date, extends to fault..younger faults cuts across older layers)
320
strata
multiple layers of rock
320
disconformities are identified by
erosion
321
stratum
one layer of rock
322
igneous intrusion
unconformity will be flat on top due to erosion
322
truncated
shortened
323
rivers create
asymmetrical ripple marks, shows which way the river was flowing
323
examples of clastic rocks
conglomerate, breccia, trilobites in shale
324
what is an example of a meandering stream
the Mississippi river
324
provides clues about the method of transportation of clasts and the environment of deposition
particle (grain) size, particle sorting, grain shape
324
needed so clay can be deposited and reach the bottom
shale
325
most of the time its heated water with dissolved ions in it, can be involved with magma, infiltration near surface.
hydrothermal fluids
326
rocks were heated to the point where they could bend/fold without breaking and it stays in the deformed shape. (not to the point of melting!)
ductile deformation
327
mud cracks
clay, when things dry out (environment was once wet) and deposition starts again, mud cracks will be filled in.
327
beaches, waves going in and out
create symmetrical ripple marks
327
what is the only type of rock with a parent rock?
metamorphic
328
the shape and configuration of the lands surface
topography
328
before sonar, we didn't know that the ocean floor was complex, we thought it was just filled with
plains (abyssal plains)
329
an example of passive remote sensing
camera
330
sonar was developed in
WWII, 1940s/1950s
331
isobars
pressure
331
sonar found
oceanic ridge system, deep trenches
331
turbidite deposits
creates material for continental rise
332
what is the average (!) depth of the ocean
3.8 km (2.5 miles)
332
flat plains part of deep ocean basins, small percent of the ocean due to complexity.
abyssal plains
333
continental crust submerged in ocean
continental shelf
333
material on ocean floor, event dislodges sediment from con. shelf, gets mixed up in slurry of materials. denser than water. landslide under water. current with a lot of sediment.
turbidity current (debris flow)
333
occurs over passive margins, thick accumulation of sediment that moved down slope from con. shelf to the ocean floor.
continental rise
334
small fraction of ocean floor. narrow, extremely deep. occur adjacent to continents with young mountains (ex. Andys mountains)
oceanic trenches
334
submerged volcanic structures (either active or inactive)
sea mounts
335
broad, elevated feature that forms a continuous belt. winds 70,000 km around the planet. consists of fractured and uplifted igneous rocks.
mid ocean ridges
336
oceanic crust is developed in __________ constantly, but constantly destroyed at ____________ (subduction)
mid ocean ridges; ocean trenches
336
features of seamounts created where
Hawaii is today
336
florida has a
huge continental shelf
337
no trenches in ______ ocean, but _______ ocean has many.
Atlantic; pacific (Pacific ring of fire)
337
continents are about _______ above sea level.
8/10th of a km
338
2 major regions of continents
uplifted regions of deformed rocks (present day mountain belts).
extensive flat, stable areas; eroded nearly to sea level.
339
alleghanian oregeny
Africa collided with North America
339
craton has not been active
the entire Phanerozoic eon (~540 million years)
340
cratons are divided into
shields and stable platforms
340
a gravitational balance between the weight of the crust (lithosphere) and the mantle (asthenosphere)
isostasy
340
almost all of _______ is a craton
Africa
341
additions or subtraction of weight
isostatic adjustment
342
combined effects of isostatic adjustment and erosion
thins crust in mountainous regions
343
weight of mt. range adds to the weight on the lithosphere which causes crust to sink (the mantle will kinda move out of the way)
isostatic depression
343
earthquakes can happen along passive margins due to
isostatic adjustment/rebound (not as big as those on active margins)
343
as erosion lowers mts., the crust rises in response to the subtraction of weight in order to maintain isostatic balance.
isostatic uplift, isostatic rebound.
344
before the 1960s, it was believed that continents were _______ and ocean basins were _____
ancient and at fixed locations; ancient and flat
345
in _____, ______ ______ proposed the continental drift hypothesis (that all the continents were together in a super continent.. pangea)
1915, Alfred Wegener
345
pangea formed
~300 million yrs ago, Paleozoic era
346
highly deformed igneous rocks in ______ resemble similarly aged rocks in _____
Brazil; Africa
346
evidence for continental drift
shape of the continents, fossils, rocks types and geologic features, ancient climates (paleoclimates)
347
mountains of comparable age and structures are found in the ___________ and ________
British Isles; Scandinavia
348
Northern land masses (pangea)
laurasia (north america, eurasia)
348
southern land masses (pangea)
Gondwanaland (souther america, africa, india, australia, antartica)
348
what is the name of the other super continent that existed?
Rodinia
349
very powerful erosion agent that leaves evidence.
glaciation
349
Harry Hess developed the
sea floor spreading hypothesis
349
coal swamps
coal deposited. couldn't have been during a "cooling period" because the swamps require warm environments.
350
during WWII, Harry Hess
was a captain on a ship with sonar, he used this to map the pacific
350
convective flows in mantle are likely responsible for
mantle plume
350
the theory of plate tectonics is a mix of
continental drift and sea floor spreading
351
Tethys Sea (pangea)
shape (small), later when things were shifting it opened up. located between Gondwana and Laurasia.
351
huge boulders dropped by glacial retreat
glacial erratics (Yellowstone National Park)
351
evidence for continental drift: paleoclimates
glacial evidence, coal swamps
352
the lithosphere is broken up into segments called
plates (lithospheric, tectonic)
352
the lithosphere sits on top of the
asthenosphere
352
mantle convection moves the tectonic plates...aka _____ _____
mantle drag
353
tectonic plates make up
oceanic and continental lithosphere
353
transform (motion)
horizontal motion
353
intraplate earthquakes and volcanoes happen in
the interior of tectonic plates. (ex. Hawaii, Yellowstone)
354
the theory of plate tectonics also explains the distribution of
volcanoes
354
the lithosphere is made up of
the crust and upper mantle
355
is the entire ocean floor a uniform thickness?
no! near oceanic ridges it is very thin.
356
oceanic lithosphere average thickness
~50 to ~100 km thick
356
continental crust has the same characteristics as _________ _________
continental lithosphere, ~150 km thick, can be thicker
357
why do islands become seamounts?
as the crust/plate cools and gets denser, it sinks (subsidence)
357
volcano hot spots form over
mantle plume
357
once an island isn't around much volcanic activity, what can happen?
weathering and erosion
(*same with Yellowstone, but on a continent)
358
divergent boundaries are characterized by
tensional stress, rift valley, ridges
358
mantle plumes are ________ in mantle
stationary
359
as you move away from ridges, crust is
older and the ocean is deeper
360
how deep is the marianna trench
~11,033m deep (can fit Mt. Everest with room left)
360
slab-pull
pulls a plate behind one another, plate subduction
360
isochrons
equal ages
361
_____ ___ _______ depends on age and density of oceanic crust
angle of subduction
362
the rift valley exists at
the axis of a divergent boundary
363
fractures allow magma to come through and build
ridges
364
period of time where magnetic field flips
magnetic reversal
365
magnetite
iron bearing mineral, magnetic (duh), found in mafic rocks
366
measures magnetic activity
magnometer
367
how magnetic energy is preserved in rocks
paleomagnetism
367
reverse polarity
opposite of current magnetic field
368
magnetic pole moves slowly different than geographic north
polar wandering
368
magnetic field is generated by
outer core/mantle
369
geographic north and south are where
earths axis intersect
370
normal polarity
aligning with todays current magnetic field
371
what do the black and white strips on the geologic time scale mean?
a record of magnetic polarity
371
angular difference between magnetic north and geographic north
magnetic declination
371
_____ is pulled behind a ship that measures magnetic energy on the ocean floor
a magnometer
371
most divergent boundaries are on
the ocean floor (rare, but some on continent)
372
what is most reliable for the record of magnetic polarity?
oceanic crust
372
red sea is an example of
continental rifting leading to seafloor spreading and a new ocean basin
372
continental rifting (during pangea) formed what ocean
the atlantic
373
enough magma formed to make ______. it sits on the mid atlantic ridge and it's being ripped apart.
Iceland
373
with the presence of water in the asthenosphere (due to subduction),
it lowers temps and molten rock can form
373
as igneous intrusions cool and solidify, it adds
to the thickness of the crust
373
convergent boundaries are categorized by
compressional stress, reverse faults
373
hanging wall moves up relative to the fault plane due to compressional stress.
reverse fault
374
deeper earthquakes can happen at
deeper convergent boundaries with subduction.
375
the nazca plate compared to the pacific plate
the nazca plate is younger and warmer
375
type of convergent boundary depends on
the type of crust
376
which plate is usually the one being subducted?
the older, colder plate.
376
trenches and continental volcanic arcs are created by
subduction
377
the leading edge of a tectonic plate that has continental crust is
oceanic crust
377
continent-continent convergence examples
Himalayas, India moving into South-Asia
377
island arcs are
volcanoes in the middle of the ocean (Aloutian trench, Japan)
378
the andes mountains parallel
the peru-chile trench
378
continents collide = wide zone of _____
deformation
378
thrust fault
type of reverse fault, has a lower angle, hanging wall is moving up over foot wall
378
thick crust =
high elevation
379
shifting and movement on ocean floor (in subduction zones, mega-thrust faults) causes
huge earthquakes and tsunamis
379
destructive boundary
convergent boundary
379
mega thrust faults
- usually associated with subduction zones
- causes tsunamis
379
constructive boundary
divergent boundary
380
ridge-push
weaker, sits higher so gravity tries to push it downwards.
380
conservative boundary
transform boundary
380
the west coast has ...
all 3 boundaries
381
is mantle convection well understood?
no
381
hot spot volcanism is associated with
the ascending portion
382
this convection is a driving force for the movement of tectonic plates, as the horizontal movements of mantle under the crust drag the plates with them
mantle drag
382
the force generated by dense oceanic plates acted on by gravity, pulls parts of the lithosphere into the mantle after subducting under less dense continental crust.
slab pull
383
oceanic crust has a density of _____ and is made of ____.
3.0 gm/cm3, basalt
383
the result of gravitational forces acting on the young, raised oceanic lithosphere around mid-ocean ridges, causing it to slide down the similarly raised but weaker asthenosphere and push on lithospheric material farther from the ridges.
ridge push
383
the crust started forming about
4 billion years ago
384
by the end of precambrian, ______ of the modern _____ ____ already existed
85%; continental crust
384
The Precambrian period accounts for _____ of geological time.
88%
385
oceanic crust is ___ thick
~7 km thick
386
continental crust is ___ thick
~35-40 km thick
387
the mantle contains _____ of earth's volume
82%
387
boundary between crust and the mantle
Moho
387
the transitional zone of the mantle
410 km- 660 km (change in density at 410 km)
388
the core is composed of predominantly
iron-nickel alloy
388
convection currents occur at the asthenosphere causing _____ _____ _____
crustal plate movement
388
the movement of iron in the core generates
earths magnetic field
389
mars used to have a ____ ____, but now is inhabitable
magnetic field
389
evidence of earths interior
earths magnetic field, something has to moving in the interior for this to be created
389
interception
participation that hits trees and vegetation first, then water falls throughfall
389
1st line of defense that earth has against solar wind
earths magnetic field
390
higher infiltration
- permeable surface materials (ex. leaf litter)
- deeply weathered sediments and soils (porosity and permeable)
- gentle slopes (horizontal)
- dry initial conditions (pore spaces are available for water to go into)
- dense vegetation (interception, transpiration)
390
transpiration
plan that uses the water, open up available pore space
390
higher runoff
- impermeable surface materials (ex. urbanization: cement)
- limited weathering and thin soils (limits pore spaces)
- steep slopes (water moves rapidly, doesn't give a chance to infiltrate)
- pre-existing soil moisture
- sparse vegetation
