Final

Question 1

Implicit self vs Self-Concept

Answer 1

Implicit self: knowing you have a body and can experience and act on the world, and that your body and the world are separate

Self-concept: organized set of beliefs about the self, “Who am I?”, Emerges around 18mo (Rouge test), start using me pronoun

Question 2

Self-concept as a social construction

Answer 2

Internalize others’ perception
Direct: you incorporate the way your caregiver describes you
Indirect: how you are treated

Question 3

First Self-concept in toddlers

Answer 3

Gender is first to emerge
2.5-3yo form a basic gender identity
Due to gender socialization (very early, not due to infants behaviour (Baby x Studies)

ie. parents misjudged ability of boy vs girl in slope (underestimate girls)
ie. play, language differences, toy purchases, division of chores, media exposure)

Question 4

Self-Socialization of gender

Answer 4

3-5yo, rigid gendered stereotyped behaviours
Actively seek out gender related info
Dur to lack of gender constancy (understanding gender remains same despite changes in appearances or behaviour)

6yo: relaxes because gender constancy is achieved

Question 5

Transgender children study

Answer 5

Trans children show strong identification and preferences aligned with current gender in a way that is very similar to cisgender kids
Means they follow a similar development pattern
Self-socialization is mostly what causes it (not parents), suggest it is internal not a result of socialization

Question 6

Timeline self-concept

Answer 6

Early childhood:
- 3-4 yo
- gender is central
- focus on physical attributes and activities
- unrealistically positive and confident

Middle childhood:
- 7-12yo
- describe self with traits and qualities
- more balanced and accurate
- changed due to increased cognitive abilities, and greater engagement in social comparison

Adolescence:
- 13-18yo
- think of themselves in abstract ways
- more concern about social acceptance
- egocentrism (imaginary audience)

Question 7

Forming an Identity

Answer 7

• Exploration: question parental and societal values and experiment
• Commitment: consolidation of choices made

Question 8

Marcia’s 4 identity statuses

Answer 8

Trajectory: diffusion , moratorium/foreclosure, achievement

Diffusion: no exploration no commitment (lack of interest, common in kids)
Moratorium: exploration but no commitment (confusion and anxiety, necessary stage)
Foreclosure: commitment without exploration (obedient children w authoritarian parents)
Achievement: achieved in early adulthood

Critics: WEIRD samples, continuous process, can restart later on in life

Question 9

Non-Social play

Answer 9

Unoccupied play: briefly watched things (0-3mo)
Solitary play: focused on own activity (3-24mo)
Onlooker play: watched other children play (starts @2)

Question 10

Social play

Answer 10

Parallel play: next to each other without interacting (2-3yo)
Associative play: play together but different goals (3-4yo)
Cooperative play: play together for same goal (4+yo)

Question 11

Importance of play

Answer 11

Social-emotional development (cooperate, ToM)
Cognitive development (problem-solving, trial and error, language skills)
Motor development (unoccupied play fosters skills)

Question 12

Adults on play

Answer 12

Study: kids played longer and explored more when experimenter squeaked toy by accident. Teaching discourages children from discovery
They need to learn on their own, adults can follow their lead

Question 13

Children’s choice of friends

Answer 13

Similarity: age, popularity, personality, academic motivation
Proximity: live close by, same school, same extracurricular

More likely to be friends with same gender (emerge @3yo, peaks @13
Start hanging out with other gender @13 (especially girls)

Question 14

Timeline friendships

Answer 14

1-2yo: pref for some kids over others (smile and touch more)
2-3yo: develop more complex social behaviour (parallel play, imitating)
3-5yo: concept of friendship (playing together), emergence of preference for same gender
6-8yo: based on similar activities
9-12yo: expands to include care, trust, help
Ado: defined by self-disclosure and intimacy (start having other genders @13)

Question 15

Sociometric status

Answer 15

degree of popularity (measured anonymously grouping in 5 status groups)

Popular: 11%, liked by many disliked by few, socially skilled, good emotion regulation, assertive but not aggressive
Rejected: 13%, disliked by many liked by few, fewer social skills, aggressive vs withdrawn, more aggressive ones
Controversial: 7%, liked and disliked by many, hold traits of popular + rejected-aggressive
Neglected: 9%, neither liked or disliked, less social and disruptive,
Average: 60%, moderate amounts

Short term: neglected and controversial might change
Long term: average and rejected are most stable

Question 16

Friendship on attachment

Answer 16

Less supportive parenting, lower social competence, and lower quality friendships in kids predicted more adult attachment insecurity

Effect of social skills and friendships as important as caregiving experiences
Both short and long term benefits

Rejected are more likely to be more aggressive, delinquency, substance abuse, low self-esteem, less education,…

Question 17

Role of parents to improve popularity

Answer 17

Monitoring: decide who they interact with and how much time they spend in activities (avoid wrong crowds)
Emotion coaching

The better these two are the more kids are liked by peers

Question 18

PATHS

Answer 18

Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies
School intervention
4-11 yo
Learn to identify emotional expressions, think about causes and consequences, self-regulation

Children that participated showed improved emotional understanding and regulation, increased problem-solving, decreased externalizing behaviours, decreased depression

Question 19

Piaget’s moral reasoning

Answer 19

3 stages (assessed with short stories)

Premoral: 0-5yo, little understanding, behaviour is regulated by caregivers

Heteronomous: 5-10yo, rules are fixed and cannot be broken, outcome is more important then intention (15 jars is naughtier)

Autonomous: 10+yo, rules can be changed, consider moral principles, intentions matter (1 jar is naughtier)

Question 20

Kohlberg’s moral reasoning

Answer 20

Pre-conventional: 3-7yo, avoid punishment and get rewards, intentions don’t matter, rules are fixed (same as heteronomous piaget). Heinz: should not steal cause illegal

Conventional: 8-13yo, compliance with social expectations, conventions, and duties. Good is what is approved by the group (same as autonomous). Heinz: okay to steal because helping his wife

Post-conventional: 13+yo, not everyone gets there, best interest of society, maintain universal ethical principles. Heinz: okay to steal because human life must be preserved

Question 21

Weaknesses of Piaget and Kohlberg: Assumed infants are incapable of judging right from wrong

Answer 21

Study: 75-100% of infant prefer helper to hinderer @6mo, 3mo also with preferential looking paradigm. Suggest rudimentary moral judgment as innate

Question 22

Weaknesses of Piaget and Kohlberg: Underestimated children’s ability to see intentions

Answer 22

Study: 2yo showed evidence of selective helping (helped the adult that had helped, and with positive intentions)

Tested positive intentions with good and bad outcomes. Results: helped equally, meaning they care more about intentions than outcomes

Question 23

Weaknesses of Piaget and Kohlberg: Children and adults show inconsistencies.

Answer 23

Social domain theory of moral development (as they age, simultaneously develop moral, societal, and personal knowledge). Implies it depends on domain)

3 & 4yo can distinguish between issues in the 3 domains (believe they should control individual but understand they can’t control societal and moral), but struggle in complex situations (esp societal)

Similarities across cultures for moral, but differences to assert which categories it goes into

Question 24

Prosocial behavior

Answer 24

Helping sharing and comforting others

Comes from Empathy (understand others’ emotional state) Sympathy (feeling of concern for their state)

Perspective taking leads to empathy leads to sympathy leads to prosocial behaviour

Question 25

Prosocial behaviour appearance in infants

Answer 25

<18mo, react to others’ distress with self-centered reaction
18-24mo: prosocial behaviour appears and increases in 2nd year (start feel empathy and sympathy)

Study: showed more sympathy in harm vs neutral (more likely to sympathize with victimized adult) even when absence of distress. Also more likely to act on it with balloon.

Question 26

Selective helping

Answer 26

Toddlers help depending on how:
- trustworthy
- friendly
- helpful
the person is, and:
- type of help required (not if requires sacrifice)

Question 27

Causes of Differences in prosocial behaviour

Answer 27

Genetics: identical twins more similar than fraternal (oxytocin). Differences manifest in emotion regulation (the more the better), and shyness (the less the better)

Socialization: copy parents’ behaviour, authoritative is good. Giving the kids opportunities is important (ie chores, community work at school)