final

Question 1

c. 1What are the two main “virtue of thought” identified by Aristotle, and on what basis does he
distinguish them (§§5-7)

Answer 1

The two main “virtues of thought” are theoretical and practical wisdom. Theoretical wisdom is concerned with knowledge and understanding of universal truths, while practical wisdom is about applying knowledge to make good decisions and take virtuous actions in specific situations

Question 2

c. 2 Explain the distinction between “thought concerned with study” and “thought concerned with
action” (§§2-3)

Answer 2

• Contemplative/theoretical thought- thought concerned with study: involves seeking understanding and contemplating universal truths; thought about applying knowledge to real life situations
• Practical thought/ thoughts concerned with action: involves using knowledge and making decisions to guide our actions in order to achieve practical goals and live a virtuous life; more about intellectual exploration

Question 3

What else must be working well, in addition to “reason” or “thought,” if our actions are to be
virtuous (§5)?

Answer 3

• Our actions must be in harmony with our state of character (our habitual dispositions and moral qualities) or moral virtues
• When our actions align with our virtuous character, we are more likely to make choices that are morally right and in line with our values.

Question 4

c. 3 What does Aristotle mean by “scientific knowledge”?

Answer 4

• A type of knowledge that is based on logical reasoning and empirical evidence. It is a systematic and organized understanding of the world around us.
• Involves observing, studying, and analyzing phenomena to uncover general principles and laws that govern them

Question 5

c. 4 What, in general, is the object or goal of “craft” (§§1-3)

Answer 5

• The goal of craftsmanship is to produce something. Craft involves using knowledge, skills, and techniques to create or bring about a specific outcome or product.

Question 6

What does Aristotle mean when he says that the principle of every craft is “in the producer” (§4)?

Answer 6

• He means that the expertise and knowledge required for a craft reside within the person who practices it. The producer possesses the skills, technique, and understanding needed to carry out the craft effectively.
• The producers are the ones who apply their knowledge and make deliberate choices to create the desired outcome

Question 7

c. 5 How does the end of action differ from the end of craft (§§3-4)?

Answer 7

• They differ in their nature and purpose
• The end of action is something that we wish for or desire. It’s a subjective perspective on what is good or desirable
• The end of a craft is the specific outcome or product that the craft aims to achieve. Its more about the tangible result of the craft’s application

Question 8

c. 7 How does “prudence” differ from “wisdom” (§§2-4)?

Answer 8

• They differ in their focus and application
• Prudence is the ability to make good judgements and decisions in specific situations; involves using practical reasoning to determine the best course of action based on the circumstances at hand
• Wisdom is a broader more abstract form of knowledge. It encompasses a deep understanding of fundamental truths and principles that guide our actions and choices in life.

Question 9

c. 8 What are the three main “types” or kinds of prudence identified by Aristotle, and what makes each
distinct (§§2-3)?

Answer 9

• Deliberative prudence: concerned with making decisions about future actions. Involves considering various options, weighing their consequences and choosing the most suitable course of action
• Ethical prudence: focuses on making choices that align with one’s moral values and virtues. Involves understanding what is morally right or wrong and acting accordingly
• Political prudence: related to governance and leadership. Involves making decisions that promote the common good and benefit society as a whole

Question 10

c. 12 Explain the distinction between prudence and “cleverness” (§9).

Answer 10

• Distinction lies in the underlying motivations and goals
• Prudence is concerned with making good judgements and decisions based on moral and ethical principles. It involves acting in accordance with virtues and striving for the common good
• Cleverness is more focused on achieving personal gain or advantage through manipulation. It is driven by self interest and the desire to outsmart others. May involve using deceit or trickery to achieve ones goals
• Prudence is about making wise and virtuous choices, cleverness is more about strategic maneuvering for personal gain

Question 11

c.1 List the three conditions of character to be avoided, and the contraries of each (§§1-3).

Answer 11

• Deficiency: this condition refers to having too little of a certain quality or virtue, The contrary of deficiency is excess, which means having an excessive amount of that quality or virtue
• Excess: this condition refers to having an excessive amount of a certain quality or virtue. The contrary of excess is deficiency, which means having too little of that quality or virtue
• The mean: this condition represents the balanced and virtuous state. It is the desirable midpoint between deficiency and excess. The mean is the optimal amount of a quality or virtue that leads to virtuous action

Question 12

What distinguishes continence from incontinence (§6)?

Answer 12

• Difference lies in their ability to control their desires and impulses
• Continence (self-control): the state in which a person knows what is right and acts accordingly, even though they may still experience conflicting desires or impulses. They have ability to resist temptation and act in accordance with reason and virtue
• Incontinence (lack of self-control): aware of what is right but they give in to their desires or impulses despite knowing that it goes against reason and virtue. They struggle to control their actions and often act against their better judgement

Question 13

c.2 Why, on Aristotle’s telling, did Socrates think that there was no such thing as “incontinence” (§1)?

Answer 13

• He argued that people always act in accordance with what they believe to be good or beneficial, even if their actions may seem contradictory or against reason
• Socrates believed that if someone acts in a way that goes against their better judgment, it is because they have a mistaken belief about what is truly good. In other words, he thought that people always act in pursuit of what they perceive as good, even if their actions may not align with that is truly good or virtuous
• According to Socrates the idea of incontinence is based on a misunderstanding of human behavior, as he believed that people always act in accordance with their perceived understanding of what is good

Question 14

c.3 What distinguishes the action of an incontinent person from the action of an intemperate (or vicious)
person (§2; and see also c. 4, §4 with c.9, §6 and c.10, §§3-4)?

Answer 14

• Incontinent person: someone who knows what is right or virtuous but fails to act accordingly. They struggle with self-control and give in to their desires or impulses, even though they know it goes against reason and virtue
• Intemperate/vicious person: someone who lacks self-control consistently. They have developed a habit of acting in ways that are contrary to reason and virtue and they do so knowingly and willingly
• Both incontinent and intemperate individuals lack self-control, the key difference lies in the consistency of their actions. Incontinent individuals may act against their better judgement on occasion, whereas intemperate or visciois individuals consistently act in ways that are contrary to reason and virtue

Question 15

What are the two basic ways or senses of “knowing” identified by Aristotle (§5)?

Answer 15

• Teo basic ways or senses of knowing are the theoretical/contemplative knowledge and the practical/experiential knowledge
• Theoretical knowledge refers to the understanding and contemplation of universal truths, concepts, and principles. It involves the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, without any immediate practical application. Think of it as the kind of knowledge you gain through studing philosophy or engaging in scientific inquiry
• Practical knowledge: concerned with the application of knowledge in practical situations and the ability to make good choices and decisions. It involves understanding how to act morally and virtuously, and how to navigate the complexities of everyday life. This type of knowledge is acquire through experience, observation, and learning through practical situations

Question 16

How is the distinction between these two ways of knowing helpful for explaining incontinence (§5)?

Answer 16

• In the case of incontinence, the distinction becomes relevant because it involves a conflict between what a person knows to be right (theoretical knowledge) and their ability to act accordingly (practical knowledge)
• An incontinent person possesses the theoretical knowledge of hat is virtuous and right, but they struggle with the practical application of that knowledge. They may understand intellectually what they should do, but they find it difficult to act in accordance with their understanding
• So the distinction between theoretical and practical knowledge helps us understand how someone can have the knowledge of what is right but still struggle to act in a virtuous manner. It highlights the complex interplay between out understanding of what is good and our ability to put that understanding into practice

Question 17

What are the two “types of premises” involved in an action, and how might this distinction in types
help to explain incontinent action (§6)?

Answer 17

• The major premise: represents a general principle or moral rule that guides our actions. It provides the overarching framework of what is considered virtuous or right.
• The minor premise: refers to the particular circumstances or context in which the action takes place. Takes into account the specific details and variables of the situation.
• Distinction between these two types of premises helps explain incontinent action by highlighting the conflict between the general moral principles (major premise) and the specific circumstances (minor premise) Incontinent actions occur when someone knows the general principle of what is virtuous but fails to apply it in a particular situation due to their lack of self control

Question 18

As a way to get clearer about incontinence, Aristotle describes several types of people who “both
have knowledge in a way and do not have it,” such that their knowledge does not really govern their
behavior (§§7-8 with c. 10, §3). What are they?

Answer 18

• The incontinent person: knows what is virtuous but fails to act accordingly. They have theoretical knowledge but struggle with practical application
• The vicious person: posses knowledge of what is virtuous but actively chooses to act in an immoral or vicious manner. They knowingly go against what they know to be right
• Continent person: has knowledge of what is virtuous and acts in accordance with it. However, they find it difficult to do so and must exert significant effort and self-control to align their behavior with their knowledge

Question 19

c.5 To what is someone in a “bestial” state attracted (§1-2)?

Answer 19

• Attracted to base and instinctual desires.
• They act purely on teir animalistic instincts and lack the rationality and self control that distinguishes humans.
• Their actions are driven by immediate gratification and impulses without considering moral values or higher principles.
• Aristotle believed that humans have the capacity to rise above this bestial state and cultivate virtues that elevate their actions

Question 20

What is the other kind of character state that is beyond vice mentioned by Aristotle (§§3-5)?

Answer 20

• The virtuous state: this state involves cultivating virtues such as courage, temperance, and justice. Unlike the vice state (where one acts in morally wrong ways) the virtuous state is about embodying moral excellence and aligning our actions with what is truly good. It is all about striving to be the best version of ourselves and making choices that reflect our virtuous character

Question 21

c. 6 Why does Aristotle maintain that “incontinence about spirit is less harmful than incontinence about
appetite (§1)?

Answer 21

• Incontinence about spirit involves a lack of self-control in matters related to anger, ambition, and honor, which can sometimes lead to excessive or inappropriate actions. While it may still have negative consequences, it is seen as less damaging compared to incontinence about appetite which involves a lack of self-control in desires related to pleasure and physical gratification. Incontinence about appetite can lead to indulgence in unhealthy behaviors or vices that can have more detrimental effects on an individual’s well being

Question 22

Why does Aristotle maintain that “bestiality is less grave than vice, but more frightening” (§7)?

Answer 22

• Bestiality refers to actions that are driven solely by base instincts and lack rationality or moral consideration. While it is seen as less morally culpable than vice, which involves knowingly and willingly acting against what is morally right, bestiality Is seen as more frightening because it represents complete abandonment of reason and the potential for human beings to act in a way that goes against their higher nature.

Question 23

c.8 Why does Aristotle hold that intemperance (vice) is worse than incontinence?

Answer 23

• Both involve a lack of self control, intemperance refers to a state of excessive indulgence in desires, where one knowingly and willingly acts against what is morally right. Incontinence involves a lack of self control in the face of desires
• Aristotle sees incontinence as more forgivable because it stems from a weakness of will rather than a deliberate choice to act against what is good

Question 24

What is it about God, as Augustine conceives of God, that makes the very idea of calling upon God beyond Augustine’s ability fully to comprehend (2.2-4.4, 2-3)?

Answer 24

Augustine believes that God is infinite, transcendent, and beyond the limitations of human understanding. God is the ultimate source of all existence and knowledge to Augustine and he saw him as an eternal and unchanging being. To Augustine, human language and concepts could only grasp a limited understanding of God, and that the true essence of God surpasses our intellectual capacity.

Question 25

Why do certain behaviors of very young children suggest, on Augustine’s telling, that not even infants are truly innocent, in the sense that there is something amiss about human desire from the outset of human life (7.11, 6-7

Answer 25

• Augustine observed that infants displayed selfishness, tantrums and a desire for immediate gratification, all behaviors that point to the fundamental flaw in human desire. Augustine believed that our desires are disordered and tend to prioritize our own self-interest over what is truly good. Augustine argued that this flaw originated as a consequence from Adam and Eve and is the original sin passed down from them. Meaning that we are born with this selfishness and sinfulness.

Question 26

Augustine admits that he sinned by not doing what he was told by his parents and teachers (10.16, 10). Yet he also goes on to say that when he did what he was compelled to do by them, he was not “acting well”; he then adds that when they “forced” him to study they also were not acting well (12.19, 9-10). Why does he hold that neither those who compelled him nor he himself were doing right? Why does he nevertheless maintain that it was a good thing that he was compelled to study?

Answer 26

Augustine believed that true goodness comes from free will and genuine love for what is good, rather than mere external obedience. Despite this, he maintained that it was a good thing that he was compelled to study because he recognized that the discipline and education, he received through compulsion played a crucial role in shaping his character and intellect. It helped him acquire knowledge and develop important skills that would later benefit him in life

Question 27

What, looking back at the episode many years later, does Augustine identify as the reason he stole some pears from his neighbor? Why is he now so horrified by that theft (4.9, 23, 6.12, 25, 6.13-14, 25-26)? What is it about the theft, in other words, that makes it so dreadful in his eyes? What role did being in the company of his friends play in the theft of the pears (8.16-9.17, 27)?

Answer 27

• Augustine identified the reason he stole pears from his neighbor to be the thrill of doing something wrong and the influence of his friends. Augustine was horrified by the theft because he saw the moral implications and the gravity of his actions. Augustine saw the theft as a betrayal of his values and the teachings of his faith. It was dreadful in his eyes because it represented a moment of moral weakness and a departure from the path of righteousness. Augustine’s friends played a significant role in the theft. Being in the company of his friends influenced his decision to steal the pears because of a desire to fit in and the fear of being left out.

Question 28

How does Augustine use his youthful love of theater to show that compassion is not necessarily a good thing, indeed, that it can actually be something bad, something in itself undesirable despite the fact that he once took strange, because painful, pleasure in compassion (2.2-4, 30-31)?

Answer 28

• Augustine came to understand that his compassion, which was initially driven by a sense of empathy, was rooted in a distorted desire for personal gratification. He recognized that that his pleasure in feeling compassion was strange and even painful, as it stemmed from a sort of emotional indulgence rather than genuine care for others. So, Augustine presents that compassion when driven by self-centered motives or a desire for personal satisfaction can actually be undesirable. Compassion can become a form of self-gratification rather than a genuine expression of empathy and care for others

Question 29

In what way, on his rendering, was Cicero’s Hortensius different from other works of Roman literature that were part of his curriculum of study? Why, in other words, was the discovery of that work so important for him? (4.7, 32-33)? Why, on the other hand, did the “Holy Scriptures” fail to impress him at the time, especially in comparison to Cicero. What, on his telling, that prevented him from appreciating Scripture (5.9, 33-34)?

Answer 29

Holy scriptures failed to impress him at the time in comparison to Cicero because he was more drawn to the eloquence and literary style of Cicero, which made it difficult for him to appreciate the simplicity and spiritual depth of the scriptures. Augustine was focused on worldly knowledge and intellectual pursuits, which prevented him from fully appreciating the profound wisdom contained in the scriptures.

Question 30

In what way did Augustine fail or betray the close friend whose death caused him such grief (4.7-8, 46-47)? How, looking back at the time immediately after his friend’s death, does that grief itself show that friendship to have been deficient or to some extent misguided (6.11-12, 48-50)?

Answer 30

• Augustine recognized that their friendship had been somewhat misguided and deficient. He acknowledged that he had prioritized worldly pleasures and pursuits over their bond of friendship. He had indulged in superficial and fleeting pleasures, neglecting the deeper connection and support that true friendship requires. In a way, Augustine’s grief itself revealed the shortcomings of their friendship. It made him realize the importance of genuine companionship, rooted in shared values, support, and understanding. The grief catalyzed Augustine’s personal growth and transformation, leading him to seek more meaningful and authentic relationships in the future.

Question 31

What does the created order teach Augustine about God (6.8-9, 167-8)?

Answer 31

• To Augustine, the created order served as a means to understand God’s existence, goodness, and divine plan. It revealed to him that God is the ultimate source of order and purpose in the universe. Augustine saw the handiwork of God in every aspect of creation, from the intricate design of living organisms to the laws that govern the cosmos. Through his reflection on the created order, Augustine found a deeper appreciation for God’s presence and involvement in the world. It reinforced his belief in the existence of a loving and purposeful creator

Question 32

What is it about God, as Augustine conceives of God, that makes the very idea of calling upon God beyond Augustine’s ability fully to comprehend (2.2-4.4, 2-3)?

Answer 32

Augustine believes that God is infinite, transcendent, and beyond the limitations of human understanding. God is the ultimate source of all existence and knowledge to Augustine and he saw him as an eternal and unchanging being. To Augustine, human language and concepts could only grasp a limited understanding of God, and that the true essence of God surpasses our intellectual capacity.

Question 33

Why do certain behaviors of very young children suggest, on Augustine’s telling, that not even infants are truly innocent, in the sense that there is something amiss about human desire from the outset of human life (7.11, 6-7

Answer 33

Augustine observed that infants displayed selfishness, tantrums and a desire for immediate gratification, all behaviors that point to the fundamental flaw in human desire. Augustine believed that our desires are disordered and tend to prioritize our own self-interest over what is truly good. Augustine argued that this flaw originated as a consequence from Adam and Eve and is the original sin passed down from them. Meaning that we are born with this selfishness and sinfulness.

Question 34

Augustine admits that he sinned by not doing what he was told by his parents and teachers (10.16, 10). Yet he also goes on to say that when he did what he was compelled to do by them, he was not “acting well”; he then adds that when they “forced” him to study they also were not acting well (12.19, 9-10). Why does he hold that neither those who compelled him nor he himself were doing right? Why does he nevertheless maintain that it was a good thing that he was compelled to study?

Answer 34

Augustine believed that true goodness comes from free will and genuine love for what is good, rather than mere external obedience. Despite this, he maintained that it was a good thing that he was compelled to study because he recognized that the discipline and education, he received through compulsion played a crucial role in shaping his character and intellect. It helped him acquire knowledge and develop important skills that would later benefit him in life.

Question 35

What, looking back at the episode many years later, does Augustine identify as the reason he stole some pears from his neighbor? Why is he now so horrified by that theft (4.9, 23, 6.12, 25, 6.13-14, 25-26)? What is it about the theft, in other words, that makes it so dreadful in his eyes? What role did being in the company of his friends play in the theft of the pears (8.16-9.17, 27)?

Answer 35

Augustine identified the reason he stole pears from his neighbor to be the thrill of doing something wrong and the influence of his friends. Augustine was horrified by the theft because he saw the moral implications and the gravity of his actions. Augustine saw the theft as a betrayal of his values and the teachings of his faith. It was dreadful in his eyes because it represented a moment of moral weakness and a departure from the path of righteousness. Augustine’s friends played a significant role in the theft. Being in the company of his friends influenced his decision to steal the pears because of a desire to fit in and the fear of being left out.

Question 36

How does Augustine use his youthful love of theater to show that compassion is not necessarily a good thing, indeed, that it can actually be something bad, something in itself undesirable despite the fact that he once took strange, because painful, pleasure in compassion (2.2-4, 30-31)?

Answer 36

Augustine came to understand that his compassion, which was initially driven by a sense of empathy, was rooted in a distorted desire for personal gratification. He recognized that that his pleasure in feeling compassion was strange and even painful, as it stemmed from a sort of emotional indulgence rather than genuine care for others. So, Augustine presents that compassion when driven by self-centered motives or a desire for personal satisfaction can actually be undesirable. Compassion can become a form of self-gratification rather than a genuine expression of empathy and care for others

Question 37

In what way, on his rendering, was Cicero’s Hortensius different from other works of Roman literature that were part of his curriculum of study? Why, in other words, was the discovery of that work so important for him? (4.7, 32-33)? Why, on the other hand, did the “Holy Scriptures” fail to impress him at the time, especially in comparison to Cicero. What, on his telling, that prevented him from appreciating Scripture (5.9, 33-34)?

Answer 37

• Holy scriptures failed to impress him at the time in comparison to Cicero because he was more drawn to the eloquence and literary style of Cicero, which made it difficult for him to appreciate the simplicity and spiritual depth of the scriptures. Augustine was focused on worldly knowledge and intellectual pursuits, which prevented him from fully appreciating the profound wisdom contained in the scriptures.

Question 38

In what way did Augustine fail or betray the close friend whose death caused him such grief (4.7-8, 46-47)? How, looking back at the time immediately after his friend’s death, does that grief itself show that friendship to have been deficient or to some extent misguided (6.11-12, 48-50)?

Answer 38

• Augustine recognized that their friendship had been somewhat misguided and deficient. He acknowledged that he had prioritized worldly pleasures and pursuits over their bond of friendship. He had indulged in superficial and fleeting pleasures, neglecting the deeper connection and support that true friendship requires. In a way, Augustine’s grief itself revealed the shortcomings of their friendship. It made him realize the importance of genuine companionship, rooted in shared values, support, and understanding. The grief catalyzed Augustine’s personal growth and transformation, leading him to seek more meaningful and authentic relationships in the future.

Question 39

What does the created order teach Augustine about God (6.8-9, 167-8)?

Answer 39

• To Augustine, the created order served as a means to understand God’s existence, goodness, and divine plan. It revealed to him that God is the ultimate source of order and purpose in the universe. Augustine saw the handiwork of God in every aspect of creation, from the intricate design of living organisms to the laws that govern the cosmos. Through his reflection on the created order, Augustine found a deeper appreciation for God’s presence and involvement in the world. It reinforced his belief in the existence of a loving and purposeful creator

Question 40

What does law have to do with happiness, the political community, and the “common good” according to Aquinas?

Answer 40

• According to Aquinas, law is not just a set of rules and regulations, but it is rooted in reason and aims to guide human behavior towards moral and virtuous actions. He believed that true happiness lies in living a life in accordance with reason and virtue and saw law as a means to guide individuals towards virtuous living. Laws provide a framework for moral decision- making and promoting the well-being of society as a whole. In terms of political community, Aquinas argued that law is essential for maintaining order, justice, and harmony within society. It establishes a system of governance that upholds the rights and responsibilities of individuals, ensuring that everyone is treated fairly and equitably. He also believed that law should be oriented towards promoting the common good, ensuring that the needs and interests of all members of society are taken into account.

Question 41

What notable difference is there between “advice” and “law?”

Answer 41

• Aquinas believed that advice is a form of counsel given by individuals based on their personal knowledge and experience. It is not binding or mandatory, and individuals have the freedom to accept or reject it. He viewed law as a set of rules established by a governing authority. Unlike advice, law is binding and carries legal consequences if violated. Law is used to maintain order, promote justice, and protect the common good within society.

Question 42

Very briefly explain the meaning of each of the four parts of Aquinas’ definition of law

Answer 42

• Law must be reasonable: laws should be based on rationality and promote the common good. They should be fair, just, and reasonable in their application
• Law must be for the common good: the purpose of law is to promote the well-being and harmony of society as a whole. It should aim to benefit the community and ensure the overall welfare of its members
• Law must be made by a legitimate authority: laws should be established by those who have the rightful authority to do so. This typically refers to the government or governing body responsible for creating and enforcing laws
• Law must be promulgated: Promulgation means that the law must be communicated and made known to the people who are expected to follow it. Laws should be clear, accessible, and understandable to ensure that individuals are aware of their obligations.

Question 43

What does Aquinas mean by the “eternal law”

Answer 43

• The eternal law is the divine and unchanging order that governs the entire universe. It is the ultimate source of all laws and serves as the blueprint for how everything in the cosmos should function. According to Aquinas, the eternal law is established by God and reflects his wisdom and goodness. It is the foundation upon which all other laws, including human laws, are derived. The eternal law is seen as the highest form of law, guiding and harmonizing the natural and moral order of the world

Question 44

Identify three reasons Aquinas provides for holding that human beings need a divine law in addition to the laws of their own making i.e. “human law”

Answer 44

• Divine law provides moral guidance: Aquinas believed that human law alone may not fully capture the moral principles necessary for guiding human behavior. Divine law, rooted in the eternal law of God, provides a higher moral standard that can guide individuals towards virtuous righteous actions.
• Divine law reveals supernatural truths: While human law focuses on regulating human interactions and societal order, divine law goes beyond that. It reveals the truths about the nature of God, the purpose of life, and the path to salvation. Divine law helps individuals understand their spiritual obligations and guides them towards a deeper connection with the divine.
• Divine law ensures justice and fairness: Human law can be influenced by personal biases, societal norms, or cultural differences, which may lead to unjust or unfair outcomes. Divine law, being rooted in the eternal law of God, provides a standard of justice and fairness that transcends human limitations. It ensures that individuals are held accountable for their actions and that justice is served.

Question 45

What is the “first precept” of the natural law, according to Aquinas, and in what sense does everyone know this precept?

Answer 45

• The first precept of the natural law is to “do good and avoid evil” It’s a fundamental principle that guides our moral decision-making. Aquinas believed that everyone has an innate knowledge of this precept. In a sense, its something that we all intuitively understand. This knowledge is not something we learn from external sources but is ingrained within us.

Question 46

What are the three main ways in which our natural inclinations specify the natural law?

Answer 46

• Inclincation towards self preservation: Our natural inclination towards self-preservation and the preservation of our species guide us to recognize the importance of actions that promout our well-being and the well-being of others
• Inclinations towards reproduction: Our natural inclinations towards reproduction and the continuation of our species help us understand the importance of actions related to procreation and the nurturing of relationships within families. These inclinations guide us to recognize the significance of marriage, parenting, and the care of children.
• Inclination towards knowledge and social interaction: Our natural inclination towards knowledge and social interaction lead us to recognize the value of intellectual growth, communication, and forming meaningful relationships with others. These inclinations guide us to seek education, engage in dialogue, and cultivate friendships.

Question 47

How is it that both the knowledge of the “natural law” and the directions for action specified by the natural law can differ for different human beings?

Answer 47

• First, our individual experiences and upbringing shape our understanding and interpretation of what is considered morally right or wrong. Cultural, social, and personal factors can influence our perspectives and values, leading to variations in how we perceive and apply the natural law. Second, our unique circumstances and situations can affect the choices we make based on the natural la. Lastly, our personal desires, motivations, and goals can influence how we act upon the natural law. We all have different priorities and aspirations, which can lead to variations in how we prioritize and apply the principles of the natural law in our lives.

Question 48

Why does Aquinas think that human laws should not try to prohibit all vices?

Answer 48

• Because it would be impractical and ineffective. Aquinas recognized that it’s not feasible for human laws to regulate every aspect of human behavior and eliminate all vices from society. Instead, Aquinas emphasized that human laws should focus on promoting the common good and establishing a just and orderly society. By targeting the most harmful and disruptive vices, the law can help maintain social order and protect the well-being of individuals and the community. So, rather than attempting to prohibit all vices, Aquinas suggested that human laws should prioritize addressing the most significant ones

Question 49

In what sense are unjust laws really laws, according to Aquinas, and under what circumstances does he think unjust laws might in good conscience be obeyed or must not in good conscience be obeyed.

Answer 49

• Aquinas recognized that there may be circumstances where unjust laws conflict with the higher moral law or the natural law. In such cases, he argues that individuals are not bound to obey these unjust laws. Instead, they should follow their conscience and act in accordance with the higher moral law. Aquinas believed that if an unjust law goes against the principles of the natural law or the moral law, it must not be obeyed in good conscience. Aquinas also acknowledge that there may be situations where obeying an unjust law, even in good conscience, might be necessary to avoid greater harm or maintain social order. However, he emphasized that individuals should always strive to work towards rectifying or changing unjust laws through peaceful means
• So, according to Aquinas, just laws are in harmony with reason and the common good, while unjust laws may be disobeyed in good conscience when they contradict the higher moral law or the natural law.