final Flashcards
1
Q
What does the weight bearing lunge test?
A
The ROM about the talocrual (ankle) joint in the direction of dorsiflexion.
2
Q
which somatotype is typically characterized by a lean body with little body fat and little muscle?
A
ectomorph
3
Q
A slowed heart beat is called:
A
bradycardia
4
Q
What expected change occurs in the ECG trace from resting to exercise?
A
Decrease in R-R interval duration
5
Q
In an ECG, what is the significance of the R-R interval?
A
It is used to determine heart rate in beats per minute
6
Q
funcitons of cardiovascular system
A
- Transport O2 and nutrients to cells and remove CO2 and waste products
- Regulate body temp, pH levels and fluid
Protect from blood loss and infection
- Regulate body temp, pH levels and fluid
7
Q
what is ithe funciton of hte semilunar valves
A
→ Semilunar valves control blood flow from the ventricles
8
Q
whta does the atriventricular valve seperate
A
- The atrioventricular (AV) valves seperate the atrium and ventricle on each side of the heart
9
Q
what is epicardium
A
→ Epicardium: inner layer of double wall, directly covers myocardium
10
Q
what is endocardium
A
→ Endocardium: single layer of endothelium lining the cavities of the heart
11
Q
what is the shape of the RV cavity
A
RV cavity is flattened into a crescent shape
12
Q
which walls of the heart are thicker
A
- Walls of left side are 3x thicker than right
13
Q
what does depolarisation in the heart cause
A
cells to contract
14
Q
what does repolarisation in the heart cost
A
relaxation of the mycocytes
15
Q
what occurs in each heart muscle contraction
A
blood is ejected from the chamber
16
Q
whta cells cause the fastest spontaneous rate of depolarisation
A
pacemaker cells - located in the sinoatrial SA node in the rihgt atria
17
Q
does excitation lead to contractioin oin the ventricles?
A
not direclty
18
Q
what occurs in the ventricular filling period
A
hen the ventricles are at rest and the AV valves are open. Blood is returned to the atria and flows down into the ventricles
19
Q
what period is in the diastole relaxation phase
A
ventricular filling period
20
Q
what are the two periods in systole - contraction phase
A
- Divided into two periods, the isovolumetric contraction period and the ventricular ejection period
21
Q
what occurs during isovolumetric contraction period
A
ng the ICP, both the AV and the semilunar valves open, blood is ejected from the ventricles, initiating the VEP
22
Q
what occurs during the Ventricular ejection period
A
- During VEP, ventricular volume decreases as blood is ejected from the ventricles through the open semilunar valves
23
Q
what is bradycardia
A
slow HR =. <60bppm
24
Q
what is normla HR
A
60-100
25
what is tachycardia
>100 bpm - fast
26
what are high resting heart rate red flags
→ Unexplained high resting heart rate (>100bpm) may indicate stress, disease or infection. In athletes, a high resting heart rate may be a sign of overtraining
27
what are low resting HR red flags
Unexplained low resting heart rate (<60bpm) may be a sign of hydrothyroidism or a potassium imbalance. These are unusual.
28
what is storke volume
- The amount of blood is ejected from the ventricles with each beat is called: stroke volume; SV=EDV-ESV
29
how can stroke volume be calculated
SV=EDV=ESV
30
what is end diastolic volume -
- The volume of blod in the ventricles at the end of diastole is termed end-diastolic volume (EDV)
31
what is the end systolic volume
- The volume of blood in the ventricles at the end of systole is termed end-systolic volume (ESV)
32
what are the 3 primary factors of SV
pre load, contractility and afterload
33
what is typical EDV and ESV in male
130 and 60
34
what is involved in the preload factor of SV
the vol of blod returned ot hte heart
35
what is involved in the contractility factor of SV
force of myocardial contraction
36
what is the afterload factor of SV referring to
resistance presented to the contracting ventricle
37
what is EF? (ejection fraction)
- Under resting conditions, the heart ejects approx. 50-60% of blood that is returned, known as EF.
F (%)=SV(mL) / EDV (mL) x100
38
how to caculate EF
F (%)=SV(mL) / EDV (mL) x100
39
how does SV increase
SV ↑ by either an ↑ EDV, a ↓ ESV, or a combination
40
what is carfiac ouput
- Total blood flow through the entire cardiovascular system
- Litres or millilitres per min
- Reflects the body's anility to meet changing metabolic needs during rest and exercise
41
how to calcuate CO
sv x hr
42
what is CO in average male
5L min-1
43
how many capillaries per sq mm of cardiac mscle
3000-4000
44
what happens to the coronary arteries during systole
During systole, the coronary arteries are compressed, blood flow to the myocardium is decreased. This, myocardium receives the largest portion of its blood flow during diastole
45
what are the two mechanisms that increase BF
1. The greater contracicel force of the heart
2. Vasodilation of the arterioles that supply the myocardium (reduce pressure)
46
what is rate pressure product
the product of HR and systolic BP
47
how to calculate RPP
- Rate pressure product (units) = (systolic blood pressure mmHg) x heart rate / 100
48
what does adventitia composed of and attached to?
1. Adventitia (outer layer) - composed of connective tissue and attaches the blood vessel to surrounding tissue
49
what does tunica media contain and critical for?
Tunica media (middle layer) - contains smooth muscle, critical for controlling the vessels diameter and connective tissue, gives the vessel elasticity and strength
50
what does tunica intima consist of
Tunica intima (inner most layer) - consists of a single layer of endothelial cells, the endothelium and thin layer of connective tissue (basal lamina)
51
what do arteries do
carry blood form heart to organs
52
why do artiers contain large amount of elastic connective tissue
allows them to distend when blood is ejected into them during systole and to recoil during diastole
53
what is arterioles the site of and critical for?
- Site of resistance
Critical in distribution of blood
54
what does contraction of smooth muscle result in
Contraction of smooth muscle around an arteriole results in vasoconstriction, a decrease in vessel diameter and therefore a decrease in blood flow to a given region
55
what does relaxation of smooth muscle result in
- Relaxation of smooth muscle results in vasodilation, an increased vessel diameter and therefore increase in blood flow to a region
56
what are capilliaries fo r
- For the transfer of gases and nutrients btw blood and tissues
57
what are two opposing forces in capillaries
- Two opposing forces: hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure
58
what is the role of hydrostatic pressure
hydrostatic pressure (created by blood pressure) acts to push fluid out of the capillaries
59
what is teh role of osmotic pressure
motic pressure, caused by the large concentration of proteins in the capillaries, acts to pull water into the capillaries
60
what is the net result of the two opposing forces in capillaries
- Net result of these opposing forces is the loss of approx. 3L of fluid a day from the plasma into interstitial spaces
61
what are veins
- Veins = low resistance conduits that return blood to the heart
62
what are veins and venules innvervaged by
- Both contain smooth muscle innervated by the sympathetic nervous system, and can venoconstrict and venodilate
`
63
whta is the non living matrix in blood
plasma
64
what does RBCs do
transport o2 by binding o2 to hemoglobin
65
what % if blood vol are leukocyres
1
66
what % of blood vol does plasma account for
- Plasma accounts for approx. 55% of vol. of blood, 90% of which is water
67
what is BP
- BP: force exerted on the wall of the blood vessel
68
what is SBP
- SBP: force exerted on the wall of the blood vessel by blood during systole
69
what is DBP
- DBP: force exerted on the wall of the blood vessels by blood during diastole
70
qhat is MAP
- MAP (mean arterial pressure) a weighed average of SBP and DBP, representing the mean driving force of blood throughout the arterial system
71
how to find CO
SV x HR
72
how to calculate MAP
MAP = SBP-DBP/3
73
what is TPR
mercury per mL/min
74
the more viscous the blood, the ___ resistnace to flow
greater
75
resistance calculation as described by Poiseuilles law
Resistance is described by Poiseuille's law: length x viscosity/(radius)^4
76
what does arterial venous oxygen difference reflect
- (a-v)o2 difference reflects the capacity of active skeletal muscles ad the respiratory muscles to extract and consume o2 from the blood for ATP production during exercise
77
what is the BOyles law
* (Under constant temperature) Pressure of a gas is inversely related to its volume (or vice versa).
78
in order for gases to move/breath
pressure must be ____ than resistnace
79
what happens to pressure during inspiration
* Inspiration: Pressure must be higher in the atmosphere than the lungs, for air to move inward
80
what happens to pressure during expiration
* Expiration: pressure in the lungs (alveoli) must be higher than in the atmosphere to move outward
81
what is pleura
* Pleura: thin, double-layered membranes that line both the chest cavity (parietal pleura - the inner surfaces of the thorax, sternum, ribs, vertebrae, and diaphragm) and the external lung surfaces (visceral or pulmonary pleura)
82
what is pleuras role in inspiration
* The intrapleural space contains fluid that lubricates the surfaces, allowing smooth gliding over the cavity walls.
83
what is the action of the diaphragm during inspiration
Action of the diaphragm: moves inferiorly and flattens out. The thoracic cavity increases.
84
what is the action of the intercostal muscles during inspiration
Action of the intercostal muscles: lift the rib cage and pull the sternum superiorly. The ribs are raised and drawn together. They swing outward, expanding the diameter of the thorax both laterally and in the anteroposterior plane. This action resembles a curved bucket handle, which moves outward and upwards simultaneously.
85
whatisi the sequence of events in inspiration
q1. inspiratory muscles contract
2. thoracic cavity vol increases
3. lungs are stretched intrapulomary vol increases
4, intrapulmonary pressure drops to -1mm hg
5. air flows into lungs down its pressure gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is 0
86
what is the action of hte diaphragm during expiration
iaphragm moves superiorly as it relaxes, decreasing chest cavity size, ribs and sternum depressed to resting, external intercostals are also relaxing, internal intercostals
87
what is min ventiliation
- The amount of air inspired or expired, usually per minute; litres per minute (L·min−1) or millilitres per minute (mL·min−1).
88
how to calculate min ventiliation
Minute ventilation (mL·min−1) = tidal volume (mL·br−1) x frequency (br·min−1)
89
what is alveolar ventilation
- Alveolar ventilation (or anatomical effective ventilation): the amount of air available for gas exchange
90
how to calculate alveolar ventilation
Alveolar ventilation (mL·min−1) = [tidal volume (mL·br−1) – dead space (mL·br−1)] x frequency (br·min−1)
Or
VA = (VT - VD) x f
91
how to calculate efficnecy of gas exchange
- The efficiency of gas exchange represented by the ratio of anatomical dead space (VD) to tidal volume (VT): VD/VT.
92
what is residual volume
- Residual Volume (RV): The amount of air left in the lungs following a maximal exhalation.
93
what is vital capacity
- Vital Capacity (VC): The greatest amount of air that can be exhaled following a maximal inhalation.
94
how to calculate partial pressure of a gas
total pressure x fraction of the gas
95
how does ficks law describe diffusion
And diffusion is greater when the surface area is large, the tissue thickness is small and the driving pressure is high
96
what are the two ways o2 is carried in blood
. In a dissolved form in the liquid portion of the blood.
○ 1.5–3% of the total oxygen transported.
○ Responsible for the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood.
○ only 0.29 mL of oxygen is dissolved in a decilitere of arterial blood.
- 2. Bound to haemoglobin
○ 97–98.5% of total oxygen transported.
97
whta does haemoglobin consist of
- Consists of four iron-containing pigments called hemes (Figure 9.15) and a protein called globin.
98
what produces a sigmoid shaped curve
This process of successive molecules of oxygen binding to haemoglobin produces the characteristic sigmoid-shaped curve on the oxyhaemoglobin graph
99
what is the percent saturation of haemoglobin
* Percent Saturation of Haemoglobin (SbO2%): The ratio of the amount of haemoglobin combined with oxygen to the total haemoglobin capacity for combining with oxygen, expressed as a percentage
100
what is SaO2%
○ SaO2% percent saturation of blood
101
what is SvO2%
○ SvO2% percent saturation in the veins
102
how to calculate sbo2%
hb combined with o2/hb capacity for combining with o2 x 100
103
calculation for oxygen content of hemoglobin (HbO2)
HbO2 = hb x 1.34 x sbo2%
104
how to calculate a-vo2 difference
o2 in artieral blood - o2 in venous blood
105
what are the three ways co2 is carried btw tissues and lungs
1. in blood plasma (5-10%) 2. in RBC (20%) 3. bicarbonate ions (70-75%)
106
what is ventilation rate
- Ventilation rate (V): volume of air inspire and expired, in an average man is approximately 6L/min.
107
what is perfusion (Q)
- Perfusion (Q): the total volume of blood reaching the pulmonary capillaries of the lungs in a given time period.
108
what are factors affecting perfusion
○ Pleural pressure is increased at the base of the lungs, resulting in more compliant alveoli and increased ventilation
○ Hydrostatic pressure is decreased at the apex of the lung, resulting in decreased flow and decreased perfusion
109
what happens when perfusion increases with gravity
- As perfusion increases with gravity, the apical and middle zones of the lung see the greatest relative increase in their perfusion rate with an increased cardiac output, such as during exercise.
110
what is mechanical work
The product of a force applied to something and how far it moves because of the force.
111
hwo to calculate work
Work = Force x distance
- Force (effort you are applying over distance)
Force (Newtons (N), convert kg x 9.8)
Distance (metres (m))
112
what is power
* Rate at which work is done (Watts (W))
* Power = work / change in time (or Δt)
113
how to calculate power
work/change in time
114
how to calculate mechanical efficnecy
power output/energy expenditure x 100
115
what is steasdy state
- Steady-State: A condition in which the energy provided during exercise is balanced with the energy required to perform that exercise, and factors responsible for the provision of this energy reach elevated levels of equilibrium.
116
how does CO respond to light to mod intensity
○ Cardiac output (Q) initially increases, before reaching the "steady state" plateau.
○ This occurs within the first 2 minutes of exercise
○ This increase in cardiac output (Q) is due to an increase in both SV and HR.
○ Consequently, both of those variables plateau at the same time.
117
what causes SV to increase
1. increase in preload (increase in venous return)
2. Increased contractility (increased SNA)
3. Decreased afterload
118
what are the three cardiovascular centres
- Cardioaccerator and cardioinhibitory centres innervate heart
- Cardioacceleratory centre sends signals via sympathetic accelerator nerves, that cause the heart rate to increase and the fforce of contraction to strengthen
- Caredioinhibitor centre - (vagal nucleus) sends signals via the vagus nerve that cuases a decreased heart rate and force of contraction
119
what is inferred if a faster HR recovery
→ A faster HR recovery = greater parasympathetic response (reactivation)
120
what is inferred if a slower HR recovery
→ A slower HR recovery = during the first min can indicate presence or absence of ischemia
121
why does SBP increase in xercie
due to increase in CO (BPXCOXTPR)
122
does DBp change in response to exercise
- DBP generally doesnt change, due to peripheral vasodilation, which increases blood flow to the tissue
123
what is MAPs response to exercise
- = MAP rises slightly, as it is a mean btw SBP and DBP
124
how does TPR respond to exercise
- Total resistance (TPR) decreases due to increased vasodilation to the active muscles
125
what is Q (caridac ouput) repsonse to Long-term (>30 minutes), moderate to heavy (60–85% VO2max) submaximal exercise
- CO increases rapidly firing the first mins of exercise and then plateaus at steady state
- Main difference btw long and short term is the CO is higher due to the increased demands of exercise
- Similar for SV and HR
126
what is SV response to Long-term (>30 minutes), moderate to heavy (60–85% VO2max) submaximal exercise
- SV has initial increase before plateauing at steady state
- Largely due to increase in venous return and increased contractility
- HOWEVER, there is a negative drift from the plateau as exercise duration exceeds approx. 30 mins
- Increase and plateau of observed after a work load of 40-50% VO2 max
- When work exceeds 50%VO2 max, SV doesn’t depend on intensity - SV reaches a ceiling and remains relatively constant during the first 30mins of heavy exercise
- Downward shift after 30 mins due to thermoregulatory stress, vasodilation of vessels, plasma loss, redistribution of blood flow reduce preload
127
what is HR response to Long-term (>30 minutes), moderate to heavy (60–85% VO2max) submaximal exercise
- HR initially increases and plateaus at steady state - relative to workload
- Increase in HR is brought by parasympathetic withdrawal and activation of sympathetic nervous system
- After 30 min of heavy exercise, positive drift upwards, proportional to decrease in SV
- Drift in SV and HR = "cardiovascular drift"
Drift due to thermoregulatory demand affecting blood flow
128
how many kJ per gram of carb
16.7
129
whow many kJ per gram of protien
16.7
130
how many kJ per gram of fat
37.7
131
how many kJ per gram of alcohol
29.3
132
what is the purpose of australian dietary guideliens
* Purpose: provide guidance on how to eat for optimal health and wellbeing.
133
The current American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) guidelines stipulate:
FREQUNCY
3-5 per week ○ For weight management, most days of the week to achieve ≥ 150 min/week
○ Increased frequency may increase injury risk
134
ACSM intensity guidline
40/55% to 90% HRmax
○ Higher intensity provides greater improvement in fitness (VO2max)
Lower intensity most applicable to unfit individuals
135
ACSM time guidline
20 - 60 min/day of aerobic activity
○ dependent on intensity, i.e. lower intensity needs longer duration
○ could be continuous or intermittent
§ ≥ 10 min bouts accumulated /day
Shown to increase PA vs continuous, in overweight cohort
136
what should specifity consider
→ Type of exercise
→ Muscle groups used
→ Type of contraction
→ ROM
137
what is the dose response association
- Dose-response association btw volume of exercise and health and fitness outcomes
- Adaptation takes place when the body is pushed to perform beyond its normal limits
- The degree of overload determines the amount of adaptation.
○ Too little overload means little or no improvement
○ Too much overload and not enough recovery, risks fatigue and over training
138
how to calculate Heart rate reserve
Heart rate reserve (bmin-1) = max heart rate (bmin-1) - resting heart rate (bmin-1)
139
what is step loading
- Step-loading: 2–3 weeks of increase followed by a decrease for recovery and regeneration before increasing volume again.
140
when is the improvemnt stage
- The improvement stage: relatively rapid progress in the first 4–8 months and is characterised by relatively rapid progression.
141
what HR% MAX is "very light" intensity
<57
142
what HR% MAX is "light" intensity
57-63
143
what HR% MAX is "moderate" intensity
64-76
144
what HR% MAX is "vigorous" intensity
77-95
145
what HR% MAX is "near max" intensity
>96
146
what rating of Borgs is very light exercise
<9
147
what rating of Borgs is light intensity
9-11
148
what rating of Borgs is moderate intensity
12-13
149
what rating of Borgs is vigorus intensity
14-17
150
what rating of Borgs is near max/max intensity
>18
151
what could a plateau after progression be?
* When a plateau occurs following progression, it may be a sign of ineffective manipulation of FIT, or overtraining.
152
benefits of warmup
○ Increases blood flow to the active skeletal muscles.
○ Increases blood flow to the myocardium.
○ Increases the dissociation of oxyhemoglobin.
○ Causes sweating, priming temperature regulation.
○ It may reduce the incidence of abnormal rhythms in the heart’s conduction system (dysrhythmias), which can lead to abnormal heart function (Barnard et al., 1973).
153
benefits of cooldown
* 5 - 10 minutes of light to moderate-intensity activity following exercise (ACSM, 2014).
* Prevents venous pooling, reduce the risk of post-exercise hypotension (and possible fainting) and dysrhythmias by keeping the muscle pump active.
Continues heat dissipation and removal of lactic acid/lactate and catecholamines from the blood.
154
what are the longterm adaptations to cardiorespiratory system as a result of training
* Lower heart rate
* Larger stroke volume -
* Lower rise in blood pressure -
* Slower respiration rate
* Lower rate of lactic acid formation
* Faster return to “normal” (i.e. recovery)
155
what causes an increase in SV
increase in SV is caused by=Increased plasma volume, increased cardiac dimensions, increased venous return (coupled with increase ventricular stretch)
156
when does SV begin to plateau?
40-50%
157
how is cardiac output maintained at max when HR is limited
by an increase in SV
158
what contributed to changes in SV
- EDV Increases and ESV decreases (SV=EDV-ESV
)
- EF (% of blood pumped) also increases, so there is greater efficiency at pumping
- ↑ EDV due to ↑ plasma volume and filling time (↓HR) more time for Heart to fill up
- ↑ in left ventricle stretch and EDV
○ Greater elastic recoil (Frank Starling mechanism) - greater the stretching the poor forceful the contraction
- ↓ peripheral resistance to blood flow
- May change
159
after 6 months of submax moderate training how much can HR reduce
10 to 30 beats/min
160
with training how does recovery of HR differ
increased speef of recoery - greater autonoic nervous system control
161
what are the drivers of a low resting HR in trained individula
◊ Improved sympathy vagal balance
◊ Higher cardiac vagal activity/lower sympathetic activity - vagal activity slows HR sympathetic speeds HR up
◊ HR can increase over a greater range during exercise
Increased HR variability (beneficial)
162
what are the drivers of a higher resting HR in a untrained individual
◊ Poorer sympathy vagal balance
◊ Lower cardia vagal activity/higher sympathetic activity
◊ Narrower range to increase HR during exercise
◊ Reduced HR variability (detrimental)
163
what are the reported improved of vo2 max from training
5-30%
164
what is blood flow determined bu
pressure gradient and the resistnace
165
is their a change to SBP, DBP and MAP at rest, during submax or max exercise
* Little or no change in SBP, DBP, MAP at rest, during submaximal exercise, or during max exercise.
- more change in SBP
166
is their a change of TPR at rest or submax?
unchanged
167
is their a change of TPR at max exercise
lower - as a result of increased capillarisation of skeletal muscles
168
what is the difference in blood volume btw trained and untrained athletes
20-25 % lagrer
169
what is the increase in blood vol in the first week of training
8-10%
170
is SV increased decreased or unchanged at rest?
increased
171
is Q increased decreased or unchanged at rest?
unchanged
172
is HR increased decreased or unchanged at rest?
decreased
173
is SBP increased decreased or unchanged at rest?
little or no change
174
is DBP increased decreased or unchanged at rest?
little or no change
175
is MAP increased decreased or unchanged at rest?
little or no change
176
is TPR increased decreased or unchanged at rest?
unchanged
177
is RPP increased decreased or unchanged at rest?
decreased
178
is Q increased decreased or unchanged in submax exercsie ?
decreased or unchanged
179
is SV increased decreased or unchanged in submax exercsie ?
increased
180
is HR increased decreased or unchanged in submax exercsie ?
decreased
181
is SBP increased decreased or unchanged in submax exercsie ?
little or no change
182
is DBP increased decreased or unchanged in submax exercsie ?
little or no chaneg
183
is MAP increased decreased or unchanged in submax exercsie ?
LITTLE OR NO CHANE
184
is TPR increased decreased or unchanged in submax exercsie ?
unchanged
185
is RPP increased decreased or unchanged in submax exercsie ?
decreased
186
is Q increased decreased or unchanged in max exercsie ?
increased
187
is SV increased decreased or unchanged in max exercsie ?
increased
188
is HR increased decreased or unchanged in max exercsie ?
unhanged or slight decrease
189
is is SBP increased decreased or unchanged in max exercsie
little increase or no change
190
is DBP increased decreased or unchanged in max exercsie ?
little increase or no change
191
is MAP increased decreased or unchanged in max exercsie ?
little increase or no changed
192
is vo2 increased decreased or unchanged in max exercsie ?
increased
193
is TPR increased decreased or unchanged in max exercsie ?
decreased
194
does lung vol and capcities show difference from land based acitivty
no
195
what are the main imporvements form swimming and diving to lung vol and capacities
total lung capacity and vital capcity
196
is Ve increased decreased or unchanged at rest?
shows no changed
197
is Vt increased decreased or unchanged at rest?
increases
198
is a-vo2 diff increased decreased or unchanged at rest?
shows no change in children- increases in young adults
199
is Ve increased decreased or unchanged in response to submax exercsie?
decreases
200
is Vt increased decreased or unchanged in response to submax exercsie?
increases
201
is oxygen disscoation curve increased decreased or unchanged in response to submax exercsie?
shifts to right
202
is a-vo2 diff increased decreased or unchanged in response to submax exercsie?
shows no chnage - inconsistent results in adults
203
is Ve increased decreased or unchanged in response to max exercsie?
increases
204
is Vt increased decreased or unchanged in response to max exercsie?
increases
205
how does blood vol respond to altitude
- Blood volume: depressed for several weeks, but an increase in red blood cells under the influence of the hormone erythropoietin
206
defien metabolism
* Metabolism: Any energy transformation that occurs in the body. Derived from the Greek 'metabole' which means 'change'.
207
what is catabolism
* Catabolism: complex macromolecules are broken down into smaller molecules and stored for later use, releasing energy.
208
what is anabolism
* Anabolism: energy is used to build complex macromolecules (proteins) from smaller subunits (e.g. amino acids).
209
what is the first law of thermodynamics
* First Law of Thermodynamics: energy is neither created nor destroyed but only changed in form.
210
how is ATP split
hydrolysis
211
how much atp is stored in skeletal muscle at rest
6mmol.kg-1 / 3secs of max contraction
212
how much atp is sotred in the whole body
0.1 kg - few mins of physiological fucniton
213
how much ATP does the average person turn over a day
40kg - 70kg in athete
214
how wuick are PC stores deplted in working msucles
15-30seccs
215
what is the products of ATPPC
1 atp per cp
216
what is the fuel of glycolysis
glycogen/glucose
217
what is the fule of aerobic system
glycogen, glucose, fats and proteins
218
by 2 mins of exercise what energy system dominates
aerobic
219
what is the only source that can provide energy aneearobically
carbs
220
what is the end product of aeorbic glycolysis
pyruvate
221
what is the fuel of aerobic glycolysis
glucose
222
hwat is the end product of anaerobic glycolysis
lactacte
223
what is the fuel of anaerobic glycolysis
glycogen
224
what is glycolysis
breakdown or dissolution of sugar
225
what is step 1 of the formation of acetyle coenzyme A
* Pyruvate is converted to acetic acid.
One molecule of CO2 is removed and diffuses into the blood stream (for exhalation via the lungs)
226
what is step 2 of hte formaiton of actyle coenzyme A
* Acetic acid is combined with coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA.
* Acetyl CoA then moves to Stages III and IV, and cannot be converted back to pyruvate.
227
how many ATP does carbs yield
30
228
how many protein does ATP yield
12.5
229
what are the four characteristics of muscle tissue
excitability, contractility, extensibility, elasticity
230
what is reffered by excitability
the ability of a muscle to recieve and reposnd to stimuli
231
what does contraciltiy refre to
ability of a muslce to respond to a sitmulus by shortening
232
what does extensibility refer to
ability of a muscle to be stretched or lengthened
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what does elasticity refer to
ability of a muscle to return to resting length after being stretched out
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what are the three types of myslces
smooth skeletal cardiac
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where is cardiac muscle located
only in heart
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how does cardiac muscle contract
at a constant rate set by packemaker cells
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is cardiac muslce voluntary
involuntary
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where is smooth msucle found
walls of hollow organs
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is smooth muscle voluntary
invol
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is skeletal muscle voluntary
yes
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fucniton of sksletal muscles
- Locomotion, manipulation, maintain of body posture, assist in in the venous return of blood to the heart, produce heat
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what are health risks of overweight and obesity
* Hypertension (high blood pressure)
* Cardiovascular-respiratory disease
* Gallbladder disease and hypercholesterolemia (high cholesterol)
* Diabetes mellitus
* Cancer
Metabolic
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how is hydrostatic weighing performed / how does it work
* Body submerged underwater, and their body volume and weight are measured.
* Compare to weight on land to calculate body density.
* Body density is then used to estimate body fat percentage, as lean body mass is denser than fat mass.
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how does the dual enegry x ray absorptiometry (DXA) scan work
* Low-dose x-rays to measure bone mineral density, lean body mass, and fat mass.
* Two x-ray beams, each with different energy levels, that are absorbed differently by bone, lean tissue, and fat.
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how is air displacement (BOD POD) performed
* Uses the principles of Boyle's law to estimate body volume.
* Individual sits inside a small chamber called the BOD POD, which measures the amount of air displaced by the individual's body.
* The BOD POD measures the pressure changes inside the chamber.
* Calculate body density is then used to estimate body fat percentage, as lean body mass is denser than fat mass.
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BMI calculation
weight/hiehgt(M)2
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what is an underweight BMI
<18.5
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what is a healthy BMI
18.5-24.9
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what is an overweight BMI
25-29.9
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what is an obsese BMI
30-34.9
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what is a severely obsese BMI
35-39.9
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what is the issue with wait to hip ratio method
they may not accurately distinguish between fat and lean mass or estimate overall body fat percentage.
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how does bioeletrical imepdance estimate body composition
It works by sending a small electrical current through the body and measuring the resistance encountered by the current as it passes through different types of tissues, such as muscle and fat. Since muscle contains more water and electrolytes than fat, it conducts electricity better, and the impedance is lowe
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what is a greater concern than actually being overweight
- The amount and location of fat (%BF, abdominal fat mass) should be of greater concern than being overweight.
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what is normal body fat % for male
12-15
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what is normal body fat % for female
22-25
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what are the three patterns of location of fat storage
android, gynoid, and intermediate
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characterise android obestiy
characterised by fat being stored internally in the nape of the neck, shoulders, and upper abdomen. This creates a potbelly shape, notably a hardness of the abdominal region, which is caused by excess fat in the abdominal cavity pushing against the abdominal muscles. The amount of intra-abdominal (visceral) fat is twice as high in android obesity as gynoid obesity.
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characterise gynoid obestiy
- In contrast, gynoid obesity (B) is more common in females and is characterised by the storage of fat in the lower part of the body, specifically, in the thighs and buttocks, with the largest quantity being stored subcutaneously. These si
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charactiersie intermediate obesity
C. C. more of a gneral increase in body fat across the enrire body rather than specific zones
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how many KJ in a kcal
4.186 kJ
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how many KJ is 1kg of fat
37000
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how are ways the body burns energy
1. Basal/resting metabolic rate
2. Thermogenesis
3. Exercise/work
4. Waste products
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what is leptin
Leptin - a hormone primarily secreted by adipose tissue that suppresses appetite, signals satiety, decreases food intake, and increases energy expenditure
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what is insulin
Insulin - produced by the pancreas, is involved in glucose use, protein synthesis, and the formation and storage of lipids.
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what is leptins main rolel
* Leptin's main role is to protect against weight loss in times of nutritional deprivation.
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what is ghrelin
Ghrelin - the main appetite-stimulating hormone that is secreted primarily by endocrine cells in the gastrointestinal tract.
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what is the BMR (basal metabolic rate)
* Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) – The level of energy required to sustain the body’s vital functions in the waking state, when the individual is in a fasted condition, at normal body and room temperature, and without psychological stress
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what is the resting metabolic rate
* Resting Metabolic Rate (RMR) – The energy expended while an individual is resting quietly in a supine position
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what is the average male RMR
1500-1800kcal
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what is the average female RMR
1200-1450kcal
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what is thermogenesis
hermogenesis – Production of heat, associated with physical activity/exercise (EAT = exercise-associated thermogenesis) and non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT).
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what does thermic effect of a meal refer to (TEM)
increased heat production as a result of ingesting a meal.
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what are the 2 components of thermic effect of a meal
obligatory thermogensis and faculative thermogensis
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what is obligatory thermogenesis
energy-requiring processes of digestion, absorption, assimilation, and synthesis of protein, fat, and carbohydrate.
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what is faculative thermogenesis
usually peaks in 30–90 minutes but, depending on the size and content of the meal, may last as long as 4–6 hours.
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what are the four physiological goals for weight loss
* To lose body fat with special consideration to visceral abdominal fat
* To preserve fat-free weight - muscle
* To maintain or improve health
* To maintain or improve performance in athletes
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what are the facotrs that can influence the goals for weight loss
The initial status of the individual (Is he or she a few pounds overweight or obese?)
2. The type of diet selected (Is the caloric restriction minimal, moderate, severe, or maximal? What percentages of the basic nutrients are included in the diet?)
3. The duration of the weight-reducing program (24–48 hours, 5–20 weeks, or longer)
4. Whether or not exercise training is included as part of the program, and if so, the amount and type of exercise (dynamic aerobic endurance, weight-bearing or non–weight-bearing, or dynamic resistance training)
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what is abdominal fat an predictor of
Abdominal fat is a predictor of metabolic risk factors for type II diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular diseases.
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can viscceral fat reduction occur without weightloss
yes
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what does spot reductions refer to
regular training of specific muscles can increase muscle tone, resulting in a slimmer or more defined appearance.
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what is weight cycling
* Repeated bouts of weight loss and regain; “rhythm method of girth control” or the yo-yo effect.
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what does prevetion of weight regain require from formely obese individuals
60-90 mins daily
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what is a sedentary persons PAL = TEE/RMR
1.0-1.39
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what is a low active persons PAL (TEE/RMR)
1.4-1.59
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what is an active persons PAL (TEE/RMR)
1.4-1.59
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what is a very active persons PAL
1.6-1.89
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how is ECG used in a diagnositc way
* The identification and documentation of previously unrecognized rhythm or conduction abnormalities can serve as indications of ischemic or congenital heart disease, or may be harmless.
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how is ECG used in a prognostic way
detemine exercsie capcity, determine HR to exedrecise, determine BP repsonse to exercsie
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what does ECG measure?
* So, the ECG can measure the overall magnitude and direction of the heart's electrical depolarization at each moment throughout the cardiac cycle.
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what does the P wave represent on a ECG
depolarisaiton of the atria
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what does the QRS complec of the ECG represent
depolarisation of the ventricles
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what does T wave on ECG represnet
repolarisation of the ventricles
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what is the main limitaiton of the APSS
it relies on the partipant t have the necessary knowledge about hteir health and to answer the quesitons truthfully
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what are the 4 ways that an exercsie professional can reduce the change of their client suffering a muscoskeletal injury
warmup 5-10 mins
increase BF to skeletal and cardiac m
increase dissociation of oxyhemoglobin
aid in temp regulaiton
conditioning 20-60 mins
cardiorespirotry fitness
neuromuscular exetrcise
cool down (5-10 min)
decrease BF gradually
prevention of post ex hypotension
promote removal of lactic acid
stretchign
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when should a prescreen be performed
when any of these conditons are met:
1. beginning an exercise program from a sedentary or low baseline
2. signficianlty upgrading an exercise program
3. when a persons helath changes
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what is the purpose of a prescreen
to idenfity infiivduals with medical contradictions, people who demonstrate signs or symptoms of clinical disease and those who have special needs
298
what are the 3 steps of cell signalling
reception, tranduction, response
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what is reception (cell signalling)
signalling pathways start with reception where a signal molecule (ligand) binds to a recpetor on a target cell
the receptor can only recognise appropriate signals and the receptor may change its shape to allow for tighter binding
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what is transduction (cell signalling)
relay of singal from receptor to effector porteins involing intracellular signalling molecules regulated by molecules regulated by molecule switches important for signal amplification, regulation and diverisites
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what is response (cell signalling)
the response refers to the outcome of theh cell signaling
repsponse is impacted by timing and persistnace, sensitivity and range, as well as integration and coordination
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what is the fucniton of cell signalling
communicaiton, respond to intracellular changes, respond to extracellular enviornment and regulate cell behaviour
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what is the avergae tidal volume in both men and women
500ml
304
average residual volume in men and women
1200 ml and 1100 ml
305
average vital capacity in men and women
4800 and 3100
306
why
does a-v o2 change during exercsie
An increase in blood flow/perfusion to skeletal muscle results in a greater total blood volume (Q).
Greater extraction of oxygen from arterial blood means less in the venous blood - a-vO2 difference increases!
307
whta is carbbs TEM
6-8
308
what is fat TEM
2-3
309
what is protein TEM
25-30
310
bpm of SA node
60-100
311
bpm of AV node
40-45
312
bpm of purkinje cells
15
313
what is systole
contraction
314
what is diastole
relaxation
315
explain how the cross briding cycle work
calcium ions bind to troponin which exposes the actin filaments sites -allowing myosin to form cross bridges - myosin heads pull actin filaments past hte myosin filament causing shortening of sarcomere - contraction- energy release allows myosin to deattach and form new cross bridges
316
what is the atp gain of aerobic glycolysis
2 atp gain
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what is hte atp gain of anaerobic glycolysis
3 atp gain
