Final

Question 1

What is the basis of psychoanalytic theories in general? How many theories are there?

Answer 1

• Development and behavior are the result of interplay of inner drives, memories, and conflicts we are unaware of and cannot control.

Nothing is observable
Two theories and both are looking at internal primarily

Question 2

What are the 2 major psychoanalytic theories?

Answer 2

• Freud’s psychosexual theory
• Erikson’s psychosocial theory

Question 3

What is the basis of Freud’s psychosexual theory? What are the 4 stages?

Answer 3

• Behaviour is driven by unconscious impulses outside our awareness. (His theory was connected to sex drive, he thought all of our underlying behaviour has a sexual nature to it.

1. Oral (0 to 18 months)
2. Anal (18 months to 3 years)
3. Phallic (3 to 6 years)
4. Latency (6 years to puberty)
5. Genital (puberty to adulthood)

Question 4

What is the oral stage?

Answer 4

• basic drives focus on mouth, tongue, gums, whereby the infant obtains pleasure by feeding and sucking.
• Feeding and weening are particularly important influence on personality development
• Failure to meet oral needs can be shown in behaviours that centre the mouth, such as fingernail biting, overeating, smoking, excessive drinking.

Question 5

What is the anal stage?

Answer 5

i. Basic Drives are oriented towards the anus, and the infant obtains pleasure by retaining or passing of bowel and bladder movements. Toilet training is an important influence on personality development. If caregivers are too demanding, pushing the child before he or she is ready, or if caregivers are too lax, children may develop issues of control such as a need to impose extreme order and cleanliness on their environment or extreme messiness and disorder.

Question 6

What is the anal stage?

Answer 6

• Basic Drives are oriented towards the anus, and the infant obtains pleasure by retaining or passing of bowel and bladder movements.
• Toilet training is an important influence on personality development.

-If caregivers are too demanding, pushing the child before he or she is ready, or if caregivers are too lax, children may develop issues of control such as a need to impose extreme order and cleanliness on their environment or extreme messiness and disorder.

Question 7

What is the Phallic stage?

Answer 7

• Basic drives shift to the genitals. The child develops a romantic desire for the opposite sex parent and a sense of hostility and/or fear of the same-sex parent.
• The conflict between the child’s desires and fears arouses anxiety and discomfort.
• It is resolved by pushing the desires into the unconscious and spending time with the same sec parent adopting his or her behaviors and roles.
• It is through this process that children begin to become members of society by adopting societal expectations and values.
• Failure to resolve this conflict may result in guilt and lack of conscience.

Question 8

What is the Latency stage?

Answer 8

• This is not a stage but a time of calm between stages when the child develops talents and skills and focuses on school, sports, and friendships.

Question 9

What is the genital stage?

Answer 9

• With the physical changes of early adolescence, the basic drives again become oriented towards the genitals. The person becomes concerned with developing mature adult sexual interests and sexual satisfaction in adult relationships throughout life.

Question 10

What is the basis of Erikson’s psychosexual theory? What are the 8 stages?

Answer 10

• Included the role of the social world in shaping our sense of self.
• Erikson believed that we do what we do because of how we see ourselves, we see ourselves because of how we interact with others.
• Also, a stage theorist. He believed that at every stage we had a crisis or challenge that we needed to overcome.
• If you do well in that crisis or challenge, then when you move forward to successive stages, you will probably continue to do well.

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1 year)
2. Autonomy vs . Shame and doubt (1 to 3 years)
3. Initiative vs. Shame and guilt (3 to 6 years)
4. Industry vs. inferiority (6 to 12 years)
5. Identity vs. role confusion (puberty to early adulthood)
6. Intimacy vs isolation (early adulthood)
7. Generetivity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood)
8. Integrity vs. despair (late adulthood)

Question 11

What is trust vs. mistrust?

Answer 11

Infants learn to trust that others will fulfill their basic needs nourishment, warmth, comfort, or to lack confidence that their needs will be met.

Question 12

what is Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt?

Answer 12

Toddlers learn to be self-sufficient and independent through toilet training, feeding, walking, talking, and exploring, or they lack confidence to their own abilities and doubt themselves.

Question 13

What is initiative vs. Shame and guilt?

Answer 13

Young children become inquisitive, ambitious, and eager for responsibility, or they experience overwhelming guilt for their curiosity and overstepping boundaries.

Question 14

What is industry vs. Inferiority?

Answer 14

Children learn to be hardworking, competent, and productive by mastering new skills in school, friendships, and home life, or they experience difficulty, leading to feelings, of inadequacy and incompetence.

Question 15

What is identity vs. role confusion?

Answer 15

Adolescents search for a sense of self by experimenting with roles. They also look for answers to questions “who am I?” in terms of career, sexual, and political roles, or they remain confused about who they are and their place in the world.

Question 16

What is Intimacy vs isolation?

Answer 16

Young adults seek companionship and close relationships with another person, or they experience isolation and self-absorption due to difficulty developing intimate relationships and sharing with others.

Question 17

What is Generativity vs. Stagnation?

Answer 17

Adults contribute to establish and guide the next generation through work, creative activities, and parenting, or they stagnate, remaining emotionally impoverished and concerned about themselves.

Question 18

Integrity vs. despair?

Answer 18

Older adults look back to make sense of it, accept mistakes, and view life, and meaningful and productive, or they feel despair over goals never reached and fear of coach.

Question 19

What is the basis of behaviour and social learning theory? How many theorists are there?

Answer 19

• Development and behavior are influenced by the physical and social environment.
• Completely different from Freud and Erikson who believed that this was all internal.
• These are about the outside world and how our behavior is influenced by this.
• 2 major theories (John Watson & Albert Bandura)

Question 20

What is the main idea of John Watson behaviourism? What are the 2 main mechanisms?

Answer 20

• We watch what people do and explain that based on what was seen.
• About what is immediately going on that is motivating behavior
• You do something and something happens, you learn from your experience examines only observable behavior.
• Learning theorists believe we can mold someone’s behavior if we manipulate it.
• Freud and Erikson would say that can’t be done.
• Classical conditioning
• Operant conditioning

Question 21

What is classical conditioning?

Answer 21

Person or animal comes to associate environmental stimuli with physiological responses

What are examples: Pavlov’s dog is an example. Good example: when you take an infant to a doctor they immediately start crying because they have associated the doctor with pain regardless of what is being done to them.

Question 22

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 22

• Behaviour becomes more or less probable depending on its consequences.
• This is based off of consequence. Negative consequence? less likely to repeat ct.
• Positive and negative reinforcement/ rewards and punishments.

Question 23

What is the basis of social learning theory? What are the 2 key mechanism? Example?

Answer 23

• People actively process observable information, and their thoughts and feelings and then influence their future behavior. You see what other people do, think about what you saw, and decide how to behave.
• Observational learning: People learn through observing and imitating models. Good Example; younger sibling learns what to do and what not to do. They benefit form seeing the experiences of their sibling

Reciprocal determinism: Individuals environment interact and influence each other

• individuals and their environment interact and influence each other. Ex: older and younger siblings watch each other. Not passive, observing everything in your environment and being observed by everything. Each piece is being affected by another piece.

Question 24

What is the basis of Piaget’s cognitive theory? What is a key concept? Example?

Answer 24

• Development and behavior are the result of the thought or cognition. Children and adults use their ability to think to better understand their ability to think to better understand their environment. Through active exploration of learning and finding things out, the better we understand the world.
• One concept is the idea of cognitive schemas. Piaget believed that there is an organization of learning that are like concepts that we put in categories to sort through and make sense of it. Piaget was one of the first ones to say that we organize information into categories.

Ex; toddlers acquire knowledge, and categorize things into groups so that they make sense.

Ex: dogs, cats, horses are all animals. Chairs, desk, ect. are furniture. They don’t necessarily know the difference between these categories at certain ages. The better we are able to categorize information, and break up categories into sub-categories, the better we are at understanding the world.

Question 25

What are the stages of Piaget’s cognitive development?

Answer 25

• Sensorimotor (Birth to 2 years)
• Preoperational (2 to 6 years)
• Concrete Operational (7 to 11 years)
• Formal Operational (12 years to adulthood)

Question 26

What is the basis of systems theories? Who are the 2 main theorists?

Answer 26

• Emphasizes the role of social context in development.
• People are inseparable from the familial neighbourhood and societal contexts in which they live.

Vygotsky and broffenbrenner

Question 27

What is the basis of Vygotsky’s sociocultural System Theory?

Answer 27

• Examines how culture is transmitted from one generation to the next through social interaction.
• We learn about the culture in which we live from the culture that we living.
• Knowledge and understanding of this context is handed down.
• This can be through family rituals, cultural rituals, ect.
• We often learn about appropriate behavior by learning what things happen in the culture/environment that we live.

Question 28

What is the basis of brofenbrenner’s Bioecological systems theory?

Answer 28

1.Addresses both the role of the individual and that individual’s social interactions.

2.Development is the result of interactions among biological, cognitive, and psychological changes within a person and their changing context.

3.Individuals are embedded in, or surrounded by, series of sociocultural contexts.

Question 29

What did broffenbrenner believe about the contexts being biological and environmental?

Answer 29

• He believed that some of these contexts are biological.

Ex: if you were raising a child in the 50s-80s, you might be living in a house that was painted with led based paint, some kids might get poisoned from this.

• If you lived somewhere that you didn’t have access to water there will be a biological effect.
• If you went to a poor vs rich school, you will be more or less cognitive stimulated based on available resources. Your relationships with others will also affect social aspects.
• He looked more at how the individual is affected by the environment but how that individual also alters its own environment. Ex: if you talk to anyone if having children changed them, they would all say yes (if they raised them) it’s not only that the environment is affecting the individual but the individual is also affecting its environment.

Question 30

What are the 4 systems in Broffenbrenner’s theory?

Answer 30

Macrosystem:

Exo-system: individual does not always come in contact but it affects them.

Meso-system: anything in the microsystem interacting with one another. Ex: parents are interacting with teachers in school, family is interacting with friends. Your behavior and sense of self is affected by being a part of or observing how everything in the microsystem interacts with one another. We have the ability to alter things in the meso-system.

Microsystem

Question 31

what are dominant recessive disorders? what are 2 examples?

Answer 31

Dominant-Recessive disorders
From one dominant and one recessive allele
- Huntington’s Disease
- Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Question 32

How do maternal age in prenatal stages affect child?

Answer 32

Age:
Women today are having babies later and later If woman is over 35 it is an automatic high-risk pregnancy Increased risk of down syndrome.

Question 33

How do maternal nutrition in prenatal stages affect child?

Answer 33

Nutrition:
Everything the mom takes in goes through the umbilical cord and to the baby. Need 2000-3000 calories a day when you are pregnant.

Question 34

How do maternal emotional well-being in prenatal stages affect child?

Answer 34

Emotional well-being:
When they get stressed, the stress hormones increase and go through the umbilical cord and to the baby. When the mom experiences stress, so does the baby. Babies heart rate goes up . It is more likely for the baby to have low birth weight Can result in the child later having anxiety disorder, ADHD, ADD.

Question 35

How do maternal prenatal care in prenatal stages affect child? How might this be influenced by ethnicity and SES?

Answer 35

Prenatal care:
Collection of services provided to individuals who are pregnant to make sure their babies health is okay. Includes check-ups, prenatal vitamins. With regard to check-ups one can see if something is putting the baby or mother at risk. Women who do not get prenatal care often have the number one risk of having a low weight baby. In Canadian prenatal care is accessible but When you have other children and are working you might not have time to go to the doctor.

Ex: might not have someone to take care of your other children.

In the US they do not have free medical care and women who have health insurance go
US health care is linked to employment
Sometimes women don’t go because they are not sure if they will keep the baby go on with the pregnancy Some women are at a disadvantage.

Minorities have higher rate of low SES
Indigenous women have less access to prenatal care than non-indigenous women.

Question 36

How can nutrition effect when puberty comes?

Answer 36

Nutrition
- There is a specific hormone (leptin) it is related to puberty. It is stored in fat cells.

The more fat cells the more leptin you will develop. The more leptin you have the sooner you will start puberty. We also see connections between obesity and puberty.

It’s easier to hide when boys reach sperm-archy than men-archy.

We’re good at keeping records of men-archy. We know that girls are starting their periods earlier in the last 100 to 200 years.

This may be because we have more access to nutrition and more access to processed foods (this helps us get fat which makes us hit puberty sooner)

Question 37

How might stress influence when puberty comes?

Answer 37

Stress also plays a really big role. If girls are living in a really stressful environment, if she’s a victim of abuse etc. (severe stress) that can bring on men-archy early.

Question 38

how might SES effect when puberty comes?

Answer 38

We see a strong correlation between early men-archy and low SES. We also see a very strong correlation between low SES and obesity. When you are poor you don’t have access to enough nutrients. SO there is a higher correlation between being poor and men-archy and puberty

Question 39

How can stress affect a girl’s period?

Answer 39

Stress can also make a girl have her period stop. This is called ameneria. This is because your body realizes how stressed you are and doesn’t think you will be able to maintain a pregnancy so it stops you ovulating because it thinks you wouldn’t survive. This stress will more likely be something like you have cancer and are being treated or you have multiple broken bones etc.

Question 40

What is the problem with off-timed puberty? Early? Late? What gender is most affected?

Answer 40

Off timed Puberty: This tells them that they are different from everybody else. Either you have to start wearing a bra or oppositely you look like a child. More anxiety, higher levels of depression are shown.

Early: Before 8 (girls) or 9 (boys)
Late: After 13 (girls) or 14 (boys)

Girls often have significant body image issues they have a tendency to be victims of sexual harassment because their friends are teasing them about having a bra or boobs etc. Later, when she is fully gone through puberty. This means by 12 she looks like a women if she started puberty when she was 8. If she looks sexually mature, people spread rumors about sexual maturity. The way other people treat her is different.

Question 41

Who is most affected by early maturation rather than late maturation?

Answer 41

Early maturation linked with more problems than late maturation. This is for girls. It’s often the opposite for boys.

Question 42

What contextual factors influence the effects of pubertal timing?

Answer 42

• contextual is stuff around you and how that affects stuff around you. Ex: you have a 12-year-old girl being hit on by 16, 18-year-old boys. This means they have a tendency to get involved in age-inappropriate behavior.
• Maybe at 12 or 13 they are getting involved in drugs and alcohol and sexual activity. This is because everyone around them is treating them if they are older.
• They often start hanging around older kids because they look more similar to them and start behaving older than their age.
• These contextual factors push them into experiences that aren’t good for them. Girls that are early timed have higher rates of sexual activities, STI, teen pregnancy, etc.

Question 43

What are parent characteristics that are risk factors for maltreatment?

Answer 43

• Parents that have low impulse control, a shirt temper, poor problem-solving skills, coping skills, etc, the parent gets upset a lot faster so they resort to abuse a lot faster. Families that live in poverty and have marital distress are more likely to lead to abuse to children.

Question 44

What is the average age for substance use in Canada? what are its effects worse than? When was it legalized? What has happened to consumption since legalization? What gender is more likely to consume?

Answer 44

common substance use.

Average age is 14 for starting use.

Effects on developing brain is worse than consuming alcohol.

Marijuana was legalized here 5 years ago but we haven’t really seen an increase in use. When we survey 15-24year-olds, 25% said they had consumed marijuana (none of whom have a fully developed brain).

When we survey adolescents and young adults about attitudes about cannabis and marijuana use, we find differing perspectives between males and females. Men are more likely to be consumers of it. Men are more likely to perceive it as less risky. BUT men are more likely to operate a motor vehicle after consuming cannabis than women. This is against the law.

Question 45

What is guided participation? Whose theory is this involved in?

Answer 45

Vygotsky

More skilled partner is attuned to needs of the child and guides her accomplish more than she could do alone.

this is verbal for the most part. It is when a more skilled partner (parent, caregiver etc) is attuned to the needs of the child and guides them to accomplish more than they could do alone. This happens a lot with kids. Parents can tell a kid is ready to do something they haven’t yet so they talk them through it.

Question 46

What is zone of proximal development? Whose theory is it a part of?

Answer 46

Vygotsky

The gap between a child’s competence level (what she can do alone) and what she can do with assistance. The zone of proximal development. Think of the zone as in a space. A child could be between a zone of development, they know how to do something but they need to be guided to do that thing in a different context.

Question 47

What is sensory memory?

Answer 47

• Holds incoming sensory information in its original form.
• If you see something, hear, taste, something etc, if one of your senses is stimulated then our sensory memory will hold onto that information in its original form. It will only hold on to this information as long as you pay attention to it. This means that we are often exposed to many types of sensory information but we don’t pay attention to it. Our brain acknowledges that we’re sensing something but we won’t think about it unless we are paying attention to it.
• Attention: Awareness of information. Typically, what we do is we move information that we have paid attention to into our working memory.

Question 48

What is working memory? What are the 2 main components?

Answer 48

Holds and processes information that is being ‘worked on’ (manipulated, encoded, or retrieved)

Our working memory is our short-term memory. Manipulated means we are trying to process and understand the information. Encoding means putting it in a place to be retrieved later. Or retrieve memory from our long-term memory. Our working memory is the part of our brain that processes that information and does something with it.

Central Executive:
* Control processor that directs the flow of information and regulates cognitive activities such as attention, action, and problem-solving.
The central executive is a essentially a sorting system. It decides what should be done with the information and where it should go. It doesn’t do anything with it, it just makes the directions.

Executive Function:
* Cognitive process of understanding information, making decisions, and solving problems. The executive function acts on the instructions given by the central executive. The actual processes are dealt with by executive function.

Question 49

What is longterm memory?

Answer 49

• Unlimited store that holds information indefinitely. Long term memory is an unlimited store that holds information indefinitely. IN long term memory we either take something processed by working memory, the central execute would decide how to put something in long term memory. Or if you’re reading a topic you already know about you’re central executive will tell the long-term memory to pull on that information and bring it into short term memory so you can use it while reading

Question 50

How is risk taking behaviour related to brain development in adolescents?

Answer 50

now we’re better at making decisions than we were as a child but we aren’t great at it. Adolescence are perfectly capable of rational decision making. The way that they are better at making decisions is if the decision they are making has no risk involved. When you include risk taking, the limbic system kicks in and messes you up. The more tempting something is, the limbic system is going to tell you to do it regardless of what your pre-frontal cortex tells you.

one of the things we know about risk taking behaviors is that adolescents are way more susceptible to the positive feedback from the risky stimuli. They don’t pay attention to the risky behaviors. They downplay the costs and up-play the benefits.

Question 51

What is the flynn effect?

Answer 51

There’s an increase in IQ scores overtime. About 3 points per decade. Therefore, IQ scores went up about 30 points over the last 100 years. Flynn is wondering if people are actually getting smarter overtime or if education is more common. In addition, there’s more for us to know and life is more complicated now because of technology etc. We have to be smarter to survive, exist and excel.

Question 52

How does SES effect IQ?

Answer 52

social class is more what is causing those differences. Its more that those numbers are about sees and not race.

Accounts for many ethnic differences in IQ scores.

Differences based on SES are not inborn.

Contributes to IQ through differences in culture, nutrition, living conditions, school resources, intellectual stimulation, and life circumstances.

people living in poverty have lower IQ and people living in upper classes have higher IQs. BUT this difference is not the same in infants. These differences don’t exist in infants.

Question 53

What is phonology?

Answer 53

Knowledge of sounds used in a given language (humans are able to make out more sounds than are in any language)

Learning how to detect, discriminate, and produce speech sounds.

Question 54

What is morphology?

Answer 54

Understanding the ways that sounds can be combined to form words

Infants learn that sounds can be combined in meaningful ways

Infants and toddlers learn to make meaningful sounds based on our reaction to their combinations.

Question 55

What is semantics?

Answer 55

Meaning or context of words and sentences. Growing vocabulary signals increase in semantic knowledge

Question 56

what is Syntax?

Answer 56

Knowledge of the structure of sentences
Rules by which words are to be combined to form sentences.
In English we do Subject, Verb, Object

Question 57

What is pragmatics?

Answer 57

Understanding how to use language to communicate effectively
we talk to kids, parents, teachers etc differently. Need to know your audience. Need to learn that there is an intonation at the end of a sentence when asking a question.

Question 58

How does poverty effect language development?

Answer 58

-Less developed language skills
-Less exposure to speech (this is called the word gap)
-Lower quality parent-child interactions (children who have been exposed to a lot of aces have a tendency to self-isolate which causes them to be exposed to less language.)
- Increased household instability and disorder.

Trends:
- Children that live in poverty know up to four million less words than kids who grew up in higher SES families. This is by the time they are 9 or 10
- children who grow up in poverty are more likely to be given directives rather than having interactive conversations with their parents.

Question 59

What are bowlby’s four stages?

Answer 59

1. Indiscriminate Social Responsiveness (birth to 2 months)
   That infant will respond to anyone who is making sure their needs are met. They don’t care who it is. All they want is for someone to relieve their distress.
2. Discriminating sociability (2 through 6-7 months)
   - begin to prefer familiar people. That infant typically has one or more regular care giver. These people regularly come to an infant’s aid when they are in distress. The infant then starts preferring those individuals.
3. Attachments (7-24 months)
   - child becomes connected to very specific and regular caregivers.
4. Reciprocal Relationships (24 – 30 months and onwards)
   at this point, both people will do things to continue to keep that relationship strong, and connected and attached.
   Mary Ainsworth created a strange situation test to test the strength of an attachment that kids have with one another

Question 60

What is self-concept?

Answer 60

-The way we describe ourselves
- Our assessment of our abilities, traits, and differences
- The way we see ourselves (which may not be in line with how others see us)
- Self-concept is an everchanging process, becoming more complex over our lifespan.

Question 61

What is self-esteem?

Answer 61

• Based on evaluation (self-concept is just a description, self-esteem is how we evaluate ourselves. How do we feel about who we are and how we describe ourselves?)
• Feelings of self-worth, self-acceptance, and self-respect
• a good way to describe self-esteem “i’m really bad at art (self-concept), and I hate that about myself (self-esteem)”
• it is how you evaluate how you would describe themselves
• Relies on cognitive development and a sense of self that emerges over the course of childhood.

-infants and toddlers don’t have the cognitive ability to have self-esteem (self-esteem starts in childhood because of this, not infants and toddlers)

Question 62

What are the 4 types of identity?

Answer 62

• Identity achievement
• Identity moratorium
• Identity diffusion
  -Identity foreclosure

Question 63

What is identity achievement?

Answer 63

• establishing a coherent sense of self after exploring many possibilities.
• the idea is that you try to figure out who you are by doing a lot of different things. You had the opportunity to try and figure out who you were and you figures out who you were so you have a sense of achievement

Question 64

What is identity moratorium? What stage is this related to?

Answer 64

• Time-out period providing more freedom and autonomy than childhood but is without full autonomy and responsibilities of adulthood.
• Most university students are here
• A lot of people do identity moratorium before they reach identity achievement

Emerging Adulthood:
- Extending transitional period between adolescence and adulthood.
- the increased numbers of students attending university has increased the occurrence of emerging. adulthood. You don’t necessarily have all of the specific markers of adulthood. There wasn’t much of an identity moratorium about 50 years ago.

Question 65

What is Identity diffusion?

Answer 65

Not having explored or committed to a sense of self
some people end up here for life, some people end up here for a longer period of time before moving into identity achievement. Maybe because they aren’t that motivated to make a decision. Sometimes people end up here because they can’t make a decision about what they want to do career wise because nothing interests them. Usually, they don’t want to go to university.

Question 66

What is identity foreclosure?

Answer 66

Chosen an identity without engaging in exploration

They didn’t do a moratorium and they didn’t necessarily do identity achievement because they didn’t explore a whole bunch of possibilities. Fairly common in families where the children are told what they are going to be when they are growing up. Could also experience identity foreclosure for kids who know very young what they want to be and that’s what they become.

Question 67

What are gender differences in Moral reasoning? How does this relate to care orientation? Justice orientation?

Answer 67

Kohlberg suggested that this way of looking at moral reasoning was cut and dry but it is fuzzy and some people never make it to post conventional and other people jump around
men she wasn’t saying that men don’t care about people but was saying that their motivation was trying to figure out what is truly fair for everyone and to make sure that each individual’s perspective is taken into account (Post-conventional reasoning)

Care-orientation: desire to maintain relationships and responsibility to cause harm (women (conventional))

Justice orientation: Based on abstract principles of fairness and individualism
* Carol Gilligan doesn’t agree with Kohlberg, she felt that gender was a huge influence on moral reasoning. She thought that women and men reason differently.
* she doesn’t think that either orientation is better than the other

Question 68

What is prosocial behaviour?

Answer 68

Prosocial Behavior: voluntary behavior intended to benefit another (volunteering, generally helping others, sharing, being kind to somebody so it benefits them in some way)

Question 69

How do parents and caregivers influence prosocial behaviour?

Answer 69

if parents encourage kids to help with household chores or care taking, they learn that that is something that we all do (prosocial behavior). Often parents will have conversations with children about how a family is a community who helps each other. same things hold true with parents modeling prosocial behavior themselves, and helping kids understand words for prosocial behavior

Question 70

What is induction?

Answer 70

• Discipline method based on reasoning and guidance. the whole point of discipline is that you want to socialize your child to have a positive effect on the world. Induction, any time you try to get a child to do something or not do something. You explain it to them and provide them with guidance. You explain the rule, why it is in place, and what the consequences might be
• Parents model effective conflict resolution
• Focuses on behavior and not child’s characteristics
• Helps children internalize rules and standards

Question 71

What is androgyny?

Answer 71

Androgyny: integrating masculine and feminine characteristics. This is the gender variation, people who can integrate masculine and feminine characteristics

Linked with positive adjustment:

androgenous is linked with positive adjustment in various areas of their lives

higher satisfaction in relationships, work, overall life when being compared to hyper feminine or hypermasculine

Question 72

Hoe do parents influence gender development? Peers?

Answer 72

Parents:
Different perceptions and expectations for each gender Encourage gender-typed behavior

Peers
Reinforce gender-typed behavior and criticize cross-gender activities

Question 73

What is childhood self-stimulation?

Answer 73

-We think of sexuality as adult body parts and participating in sexual activity

Kids do not think about it in this way
-Childhood self-stimulation is a normative behaviour

Not the same as adults:
When adults masturbate the goal is orgasm
When children self-stimulate the goal is to have it feel good

Question 74

What are protective factors for teen pregnancy?

Answer 74

• Help teen mom and child avoid the negative maternal and child outcomes
• Have basic parenting skills

When parents have knowledge of normal development they have the tendency to understand children’s behavior and become less bothered by it

When a mom knows about normal childhood development, she is more likely to be patient with her child
- Family and community support
Parents are helpful

Community and family that encourage her to stay in social or develop other skills.

• Access to affordable healthcare:
  Sometimes it is not worth it to work
• Stable living environment
  If parent is able to create a stable living environment for the child
• Involvement of the father
  If he can pay child support
  Just the presence and showing that he cares about her and the baby

Question 75

How does prevalence of rape myths?

Answer 75

o “she asked for it”

o It’s the way she flirts”

o When you have an individual that believes this, they are more likely to sexual assult women and not think that it is that serious

Question 76

How does gender role stereotyping relate to sexual harassment?

Answer 76

• Encourages male dominance, aggressiveness, and competitiveness
• Hyper masculinity and toxic masculinity
• Pushing me to be this way
• We see higher rates of sexual assault in certain groups that push hyper masculinity and toxic masculintity
• University and professional athletes
• Professional sports is all about toxic and hyper masculinity

Question 77

How does the military contribute to sexual assault?

Answer 77

Both in Canada and the US the hyper masculinity is pushed to the point of toxic masculinity

Question 78

How do frats contribute to sexual assault?

Answer 78

• Frats are big on hyper masculinity
• Frats are bigger in the states.

Question 79

What age is sexual activity highest?

Answer 79

• Sexual activity is more frequent in young adulthood
  exception to this rule

If the couple has not been together for very long it can override the age of the individual

Normally, when you are young or have not been in the relationship for very long, when you are older you have been in the relationship for a long time

If we ask a couple in their 50s they will report having more frequent sex than a couple in their 20s if 50 year old’s have been together for 6 months and the 20 year old’s have been together for 3 years.

Question 80

What are cohabiting households?

Answer 80

households where you have a couple that sees themselves as life partners but they aren’t married to one another

Question 81

What are the statistics relating to cohabiting household?

Answer 81

since 1981 the rate of cohabiting households has tripled. It went from 6% to 21%

In Canada, there are certain provinces and territories that have a much higher rate of cohabitation compared to others. Quebec’s cohabitation rate is 40% (Quebec is higher than all). There are 3 territories, Nunavut, and Yukon, and northwest territories. If you combine all the other provinces the number is only 16%

Quebec became less attached to Catholicism then you will be more comfortable with cohabiting

Question 82

Who cohabits?

Answer 82

individuals with lower levels of education and income are more likely to cohabit, in part because 2 can live together more cheaply than apart. Cohabitation is an economic solution. In addition, people in the upper class, frown on cohabitation. They think it is tacky. IN the upper class you need prenuptial agreements and large celebrations etc.

Question 83

What are protective factors for single parent families?

Answer 83

A protective factor is something that protects the child from having a bad experience. There are a number of them but the most significant one is that the parents stop fighting. So, if you marry or long term cohabit, have a child and breakup, don’t fight because that is what will screw up your kid. Kids are worse off with parents that are fighting all the time and living together than if they are children of divorce. BUT if the parents keep fighting after the divorce, the child’s experience is still difficult. Another protective factor is keeping the kid in the same house, school and neighbourhood.

if we compare the 24-year-olds to 24 year old’s who were not children of divorce, we find that 10% of the non-divorced kids have the same problems. So that means that only 10% of kids of divorce are actually screwed up by it. Because of the 20%, 10% is normal for the population anyway

Question 84

What are the dimension scores for authoritative parents? what are the outcomes?

Answer 84

o Responsiveness and Demandingness
o Outcomes for children
 Seen as the most helpful and has the most positive outcomes for children. The idea is that the parents are doing whats in the best interest for their children so that when they grow up they can be good members of society. High on responsiveness, high level of demandingness 9expectations which are explained). Some characteristics of authoritative is because you combine those 2. Very clear expectations that are explained to the children. You know why the rule is there and what the consequences are. These parents are also open to negotiation.You have to alter the rules for their developmental stage and if the child puts forth a valid argument. You are open to negotiation depending on what it is. The outcomes for these children are very positive. Typically high academic achievers, typically very cooperative (because they have been highly socialized, prosocial behaviour), One of the really important aspects of these kids is that as they are growing up, if they run into any sort of a problem, the first place they go is their parents. They typically have a trusting relationship with their parents so they are more likely to go to their parents first when they have a problem. Going to parents for help is really important for kids well-being. More likely to be leaders. When kids are raised by an authoritative parent they often grow up to be an authoritative parent.

Question 85

How do authoritarian parents rank on the dimensions of parenting? what are the outcomes for children?

Answer 85

o Outcomes for children
 low on responsiveness but high on demandingness, don’t necessarily form a secure attachment, not warm and fuzzy, but have a lot of rules. The parents typically do not explain the rules even though they may explain consequences. These kids don’t learn cause and effect becuas they don’t understand the thinking behind the rules. They do not negotiate. “my house my rules” “my way or the Highway”, “this is not open for discussion” , Do not necessarily how unconditional love. Responsiveness is low and demandingness is really high. Outcomes are lower academic achievement, they are very passive and conforming (good for social but for them), More likely to be followers, not good at compromise and negotiation because they never had the opportunity to do that with their parents, not great at conflict resolution because they never got to practice that with their parents. They often just except things. This style may go from one generation to the next. We do with our parents did unless we recognize that wans’t helpful and we recognize actively that they want to do something different.

Question 86

How do authoritarian parents rank on the dimensions of parenting? what are the outcomes for children?

Answer 86

o Outcomes for children
 low on responsiveness but high on demandingness, don’t necessarily form a secure attachment, not warm and fuzzy, but have a lot of rules. The parents typically do not explain the rules even though they may explain consequences. These kids don’t learn cause and effect becuas they don’t understand the thinking behind the rules. They do not negotiate. “my house my rules” “my way or the Highway”, “this is not open for discussion” , Do not necessarily how unconditional love. Responsiveness is low and demandingness is really high. Outcomes are lower academic achievement, they are very passive and conforming (good for social but for them), More likely to be followers, not good at compromise and negotiation because they never had the opportunity to do that with their parents, not great at conflict resolution because they never got to practice that with their parents. They often just except things. This style may go from one generation to the next. We do with our parents did unless we recognize that wans’t helpful and we recognize actively that they want to do something different.

Question 87

How are permissive/indulgent parents ranked on the dimensions of parenting? what are the outcomes?

Answer 87

Responsiveness and demandingness

Outcomes for children
high on responsiveness, low on demandingness (love their children unconditionally etc. but have very few rules and regulations and because their parents are so high on responsiveness and low on demandingness these kids are pretty spoiled and almost always get their way.) Outcomes no sense of compromise or negotiation, less socially responsible. unlikely to volunteer, help others etc. “icky” to be around

Question 88

How are indifferent parents ranked on the dimensions of parenting? what are the outcomes for children?

Answer 88

o Responsiveness and demandingness
o Outcomes for children
low on responsiveness and demandingness. Could be abuse, neglectful, absent. Often seen for kids that are raised by upper class family and are raised by nanny etc.

These parents often abuse drugs and alcohol. They can’t do these things because they can’t even do it for themselves.

Outcomes: these kids don’t think that they matter. These kids don’t feel loved, important and they have not been very socialized. More likely to exhibit antisocial behavior. Don’t fit in because they haven’t been socialized. Either bullies or they are bullies. They don’t do well in school because they don’t have guidance. Relatively poor cognitive, social and emotional development. A lot of behavior problems. Delinquency, early sexual activity, drug and alcohol use. They typically start participating in adult behaviors really early because there’s no one to tell them not to.

Question 89

What social class is more likely to use concerted cultivation?

Answer 89

• Social class differences in North America

Middle upper class
Concerted cultivation

concerted means a real effort. A real effort to cultivate that child’s talents. highly involved in their children’s lives and provide a large amount of support for their children to cultivate their children’s talents

Question 90

what social class is more likely to use accomplishment of natural growth?

Answer 90

Working and under classes (Poverty)
Accomplishment of natural growth
these kids are going to accomplish whatever they can naturally, I’m not going to push anything on them or make them do anything

Question 91

What are the pros and cons of concerted cultivation?

Answer 91

Concerted: usually grow up to be very successful career wise and financially. They also report feeling an enormous amount of pressure, higher levels of anxiety (tiger parenting falls into this category). These kids get bored really easy because their days are typically scheduled for them. Less close relationships with extended family (spend less time with them and are always in lessons etc.)

Question 92

What are the pros and cons of accomplishment of natural Growth?

Answer 92

Growth: more creative, never bored (always figure out what to do with their time), have closer relationships with extended family (in part because of tne times this is their after-school care). Have lower-level jobs and don’t make nearly as much money. These kids are also a lot like their parents.

Question 93

What are parental contributions to sibling relationships? Positive and negative?

Answer 93

-Parental contributions: parents can contribute significantly to how close siblings are

Positive: the number one thing is to use an authoritative parenting style because that facilitates more positive relationships all around. Another thing they can do is role model positive relationships. Not only between themselves but also between their own siblings. They can also promote a cooperative relationship between their children (ex: by facilitating conflict resolution in a positive way. They then role models and the more the parent does that, as the child gets older they should be able to resolve that conflict on their own).

Negative:the negative is the opposite of all of these. A non-authoritative parenting style, a lack of role modelling positive relationships, not facilitating conflict resolution. Another really significant thing is favoring one child over the other “why can’t you be more like your sister”. Instead, ask them for more positive behaviors without a mention of the sister. Another thing that can be difficult is when the older sibling has more privileges. They don’t like it but they will understand it.

Question 94

What is rough and tumble play?

Answer 94

Rough and tumble play: Running, climbing, chasing, jumping, and play fighting.
boys = more likely to do this with each other but this is in part because fathers are more likely to do this with their sons than daughters

Question 95

What is sociodramatic play?

Answer 95

Taking on roles and acting out stories and themes

when different kids in a group take on various different roles and act out different stories and games. they play the roles of adults. We don’t find that this is more common for girls. Boys are more likely to be explorers etc.

when different kids in a group take on various different roles and act out different stories and games. they play the roles of adults. We don’t find that this is more common for girls. Boys are more likely to be explorers etc.

Question 96

What is social promotion?

Answer 96

Social Promotion: Practice of promoting children to the next grade even when they have not met the academic standards.

one way of approaching a kid who hasn’t mastered the skills that hte other kids have mastered. One way is to move them to the next grade even when they do not meet academic standards in the hopes that they would eventually catch up. Sometimes kids fall behind because of difficult experiences, and they also believed that holding kids back damaged their self-esteem. More often than not we do social promotion in K, Gr. 1, and Gr. 2).

Question 97

What is grade retention?

Answer 97

Grade retention: Practice of holding children back
Reasons for retention

then we said, let’s rethink this idea of just pushing them forward, so they started holding kids back because they haven’t met the standards. Historically, it was teachers and parents together who would make this decision. Then we were doing both of these things. Reasons for grade retention are that they aren’t meeting academic standards, another reason was because they were socially immature. Or because of high absenteeism because the teachers assumed that the reason, they aren’t meeting the standards is because they missed a bunch of information.

Question 98

What are the outcomes of grade retention?

Answer 98

Outcomes for retention

The outcomes for grade retained kids aren’t good. They don’t catch up. if one of the reasons was high absenteeism because they continue to have it. Kids that are grade retained in the long run do worse than kids who were socially promoted. Typically, it has a negative effect on them and effects self-esteem and self-concept. Don’t do as well in reading and math. This means that regardless of whether kids meet academic standards, they need to be pushed through anyways. What we should be doing is making sure that they have extra help in the areas where they are not meeting academic standards or if they have issues with social and emotional development, we should add extra help in those areas as well.

kids that are grade retained have twice the high-school dropout rate than the kids who are socially promoted

Question 98

What are the outcomes of grade retention?

Answer 98

Outcomes for retention

The outcomes for grade retained kids aren’t good. They don’t catch up. if one of the reasons was high absenteeism because they continue to have it. Kids that are grade retained in the long run do worse than kids who were socially promoted. Typically, it has a negative effect on them and effects self-esteem and self-concept. Don’t do as well in reading and math. This means that regardless of whether kids meet academic standards, they need to be pushed through anyways. What we should be doing is making sure that they have extra help in the areas where they are not meeting academic standards or if they have issues with social and emotional development, we should add extra help in those areas as well.

kids that are grade retained have twice the high-school dropout rate than the kids who are socially promoted

Question 99

How do parents influence vocation choice?

Answer 99

one way that they start with this influence is whether or not they think education is important. Another way is by he job that they have. This could motivate you to want to do that same thing or absolutely not want to do that same thing. Another way is how parents feel about work. If you live to work that means you love work and it fulfills you. If you work to live, you just want to make money so you can do other things in your life.

when we look at individuals and look at the job that they end up in, we look at 5 occupational stages. Meaning most individuals follow a specific path that leads them through their career

Question 100

What is paid vs unpaid work?

Answer 100

paid work is someone leaves the house goes to work and comes home and gets paid. Unpaid work is household work, childcare, home maintenance, auto maintenance, grocery shopping etc.

Question 101

What is the leading cause of death?

Answer 101

The 1 cause of death for infants in Canada is genetic abnormalities. That means the fetus develops but dies within the first year of life. For children and adolescent’s it is accidents. Most childhood deaths are caused by a lack of parental supervision (drowning, falling out windows, falling over balconies, getting hit by cars etc.), adolescent accidents are most commonly related to poor decision making (speeding, drinking and driving, doing an extreme physical activity). When talking about adolescent cognitive development, this relates to invincibility.

Question 102

How do children experience the death of a parent?

Answer 102

Someone who is 3-5 will have to explain what happen to them over and over again which can be difficult for their caregivers. Children often experience guilt when someone close to them passes away and they can often blame themselves. The blame can sometimes go along with “they’ve left and they aren’t coming back” they are going to think that they left because the child did something bad.

Question 103

What are the experiences of children who are lesbian and gay?

Answer 103

• Children experiences in lesbian and gay families have nothing to do with the fact that their parents are not heterosexual
• A better predictor of child experiences is if you have a positive and healthy parent relationships.

-For the most part there is no differences in adjustment issues and etc between children from homosexual parents and heterosexual parents.

-We find that children raised with homosexual parents have some positive outcomes.

-In heterosexual households the dad is more masculine and the mom is more femineine.

Ex: dad is more responsible for yard work and taking out trash, and the mom is more responsible for laundry and cooking

-If you have 2 moms or two dads we do not see that one takes more masculine role etc, they are however much more likely to share those chores.
Therefore their children do not express or see this gendered behaviour and makes them more androgynous.

-Children of lesbian and gay parents are not damaged because of their parents it is because of the world

-The idea that lesbian and gay partners are more likely to raise gay and lesbian children

Not true

Most of their children are heterosexual because most people are heterosexual.

Question 104

What do we know about parents who spank?

Answer 104

More likely to be young and single

Do not have a lot of parenting experience

More likely to live in dangerous neighbourhoods

Feel like spanking is the only way to keep them safe

Mothers spank more than fathers

Because moms spend more time with children than fathers.

Researches theorize that if dads spent as much time with children, the spanking would be equal between the 2

If you go back 50 years, fathers spanked more

Parents often say that they were spanked themselves

Parents that spank do not have many tools in their toolbox

Parenting education puts more tools in their tool box

Question 105

What are the beliefs and attitudes that parents have about ability that influence child motivation?

Answer 105

Parents belifs and attitudes about ability \
oFixed or growth mindset

oThe kinds of parents that don’t instill
autonomy and initiative are the parents that end up with kids that have fixed mindset and helpless orientation

oParents with growth mindset tend to have children with growth mindset.

Question 106

What is the significance of securely attached vs. Insecurely attached?

Answer 106

Adulthood
Securely attached:

oSeek out closeness and intimate relationships
oInfluences a positive working model, desire close attached relationships with their children
Intergenrational transmission:

Insecure attached:
oHesitate to form intimate relationships
oClose themselves off
oOften end up with others who are insecurely attached.

• When doing the Ainsworth strange situation tests
  only 65% of infants and toddlers form a secure attachment
• 35% of adults form an insecure attachment which effects how they act in romantic relationships and their relationships with their children.

Question 107

The maintenance of Gender in companies?

Answer 107

-Yogurt companies were trying to find a way to make yogurt for men as it was seen as a female diet food
-Usually, the women’s products is more expensive “pink tax”
-We maintain gender into adulthood and the rest of our lifetime.
-We fall back on gendered behaviour because it feels normal
oExposure continues to reinforce gender
oWe end up falling into gendered behaviour

-Monetarray Jack vs. Monterray Jill
oMonterray Jill is the low fat one.

• Blue and pink ear plugs
  oOnes for men and ones for women but they are the same product and only differ by colour.