Final Flashcards
choosing social policies
Research on children’s responses can help us understand the best ways to ask them questions
Meta analysis
a statistical method for combining the results from independent studies to reach conclusions based on all of them
Nativists think
evolution has created many remarkable capabilities that are present even in early infancy, particularly in areas of special importance, such as understanding basic properties of physical objects, plants and animals, and other people
Empiricists think
infants possess general learning mechanisms that allow them to learn a great deal quite quickly, but that infants and young children lack the specialized capabilities that nativists attribute to them
Plato believed
children are born with innate knowledge
Aristotle believed
children learn from experiences
John Locke believed
similar to Aristotle, and that what they learn reflects on what nurture they receive. That the most important way they learn is through example.
Rousseau believed
children need maximum freedom from the beginning and then more structure at around age 12
Nature refers to
biology and genetics
Nurture refers to
environment. This can be parenting, where they live, and a variety of other factors
Twin studies
help us look at what makes a difference in development, specifically environment
Genome
refers to a person’s entire genetic makeup
Epigenetics
the study of stable changes in gene expression that are mediated by the environment
methylation
a biochemical process that influences behavior by suppressing gene activity and expression.
How do children shape their own development?
Fantasy play, crib talk, and noise
Continuous development
the idea that changes with age occur gradually, in small increments, like that of a pine tree growing taller and taller.
Discontinuous development
the idea that changes with age include occasional large shifts, like the transition from caterpillar to cocoon to butterfly.
stage theories
approaches proposing that development involves a series of large, discontinuous, age-related phases.
cognitive development
the development of thinking and reasoning. Piaget’s theory
effortful attention
when children put effort into paying attention. This includes following directions and emotion control.
neurotransmitters
chemicals involved in communication among brain cells.
sociocultural context
the physical, social, cultural, economic, and historical circumstances that make up any child’s environment
socioeconomic status
a measure of social class based on income and education, this is also important when considering environment for children
the active child
being able to choose for themselves
scientific method
an approach to testing beliefs that involves choosing a question, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and drawing a conclusion.
forming a hypothesis
a prediction that helps formulate an experiment or study, it has to be testable with children.
reliability
if it gets tested several times, do you get the same result?
test-retest reliability
the degree of similarity of a participant’s performance on two or more occasions
validity
the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure
structured interviews
interviews with predetermined questions, are very helpful when learning about children
Questionnaires:
can be difficult when children cannot read, also have to consider the interpretation of each question
Clinical interview
starts structured, but if the interviewer finds something interesting, they will expand on that
Naturalistic observation
observing children in their natural environment
Structured observation
a method that involves presenting an identical situation to each participant and recording the participant’s behavior.
Correlation does not
equal causation
Third variable
can mean that the two variables are not linked, that there is a third thing that can correlate them
correlational designs
studies intended to indicate how two variables are related to each other.
correlation
the relationship between two variables
direction of causation problem
a correlation does not indicate which variable is the cause and which variable is the effect
experimental designs
a group of approaches that allow inferences about causes and effects to be drawn.
random assignment
a procedure in which each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to each group within an experiment.
experimental control
the ability of researchers to determine the specific experiences of participants during the course of an experiment.
experimental group
the group of participants in an experimental design who are presented the experience of interest.
control group
the group of participants in an experimental design who are not presented the experience of interest but in other ways are treated similarly.
independent variable
the experience that participants in the experimental group receive and that those in the control group do not receive.
dependent variable
a behavior that is measured to determine whether it is affected by exposure to the independent variable.
cross sectional approach
a research method in which participants of different ages are compared on a given behavior or characteristic over a short period.
longitudinal approach
a method of study in which the same participants are studied twice or more over a substantial length of time.
microgenetic design
a method of study in which the same participants are studied repeatedly over a short period.
epigenesis
the emergence of new structures and functions in the course of development.
gamete
reproductive cells—egg and sperm—that contain only half the genetic material of all the other cells in the body.
meiosis
cell division that produces gametes.
conception
the union of an egg from the mother and a sperm from the father.
zygote
a fertilized egg cell
embryo
the developing organism from the 3rd to 8th week of prenatal development.
fetus
the developing organism from the 9th week to birth.
mitosis
cell division that results in two identical cells.
cell migration
the movement of newly formed cells away from their point of origin.
cell differentiation
when the stem cells start to develop into different cells
embryonic stem cells
embryonic cells, which can develop into any type of body cell.
apoptosis
genetically programmed cell death.
identical twins
twins that result from the splitting in half of the zygote, resulting in each of the two resulting zygotes having exactly the same set of genes.
fraternal twins
twins that result when two eggs happen to be released into the fallopian tube at the same time and are fertilized by two different sperm; fraternal twins have only half their genes in common.
amniotic sac
a membrane filled with a clear, watery fluid in which the fetus floats. The amniotic fluid operates as a protective buffer for the developing fetus
placenta
a support organ for the fetus; it keeps the circulatory systems of the fetus and mother separate, but a semipermeable membrane permits the exchange of some materials between them (oxygen and nutrients from mother to fetus, and carbon dioxide and waste products from fetus to mother).
umbilical cord
a tube containing the blood vessels connecting the fetus and placenta.
neural tube
a groove formed in the top layer of differentiated cells in the embryo that eventually becomes the brain and spinal cord.
cephalocaudal development
the pattern of growth in which areas near the head develop earlier than areas farther from the head.
The fetus will start moving from
5 to 6 weeks
Fetus prefer what kind of taste
sweet
phylogenetic continuity
the idea that because of our common evolutionary history, humans share many characteristics, behaviors, and developmental processes with non-human animals, especially mammals.
habituation
a simple form of learning that involves a decrease in response to repeated or continued stimulation.
dishabituation
the introduction of a new stimulus rekindles interest following habituation to a repeated stimulus.
teratogen
an external agent that can cause damage or death during prenatal development.
sensitive period
the period of time during which a developing organism is most sensitive to the effects of external factors.
dose-response relation
a relation in which the effect of exposure to an element increases with the extent of exposure (prenatally, the more exposure a fetus has to a potential teratogen, the more severe its effect is likely to be).
sleeper effects
the idea that the effects of a teratogen may not be for years
cigarette smoking during pregnancy is linked to
low birth weight and SIDS
fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
the harmful effects of maternal alcohol consumption on a developing fetus. Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) involves a range of effects, including facial deformities, intellectual disabilities, attention problems, hyperactivity, and other defects. Fetal alcohol effects (FAE) is a term used for individuals who show some, but not all, of the standard effects of FAS.
Age of mother impacts
the likelihood of conception, as well as child survival
state
level of arousal and engagement in the environment, ranging from deep sleep to intense activity.
REM sleep
an active sleep state characterized by quick, jerky eye movements under closed lids and associated with dreaming in adults.
non REM sleep
a quiet or deep sleep state characterized by the absence of motor activity or eye movements and more regular, slow brain waves, breathing, and heart rate.
multiple risk models imply that
risks run together
developmental resilience
successful development in spite of multiple and seemingly overwhelming developmental hazards.
genome
each person’s complete set of hereditary information; the complete set of DNA of any organism, including all of its genes.
genotype
the genetic material an individual inherits.
phenotype
the observable expression of the genotype, including both body characteristics and behavior.
environment
every aspect of individuals and their surroundings other than genes.
chromosomes
molecules of DNA that transmit genetic information; chromosomes are made up of DNA.
DNA
molecules that carry all the biochemical instructions involved in the formation and functioning of an organism.
genes
sections of chromosomes that are the basic unit of heredity in all living things.
crossing over
the process by which sections of DNA switch from one chromosome to the other; crossing over promotes variability among individuals.
mutation
a change in a section of DNA.
sex chromosomes
the chromosomes (X and Y) that determine an individual’s designated sex at birth.
regulator genes
genes that control the activity of other genes.
alleles
two or more different forms of a gene.
dominant
the allele that, if present, gets expressed.
recessive
the gene that does not get expressed if a dominant allele is present
homozygous
there are two of the same allele
heterozygous
there are two different alleles
polygenic inheritance pattern
inheritance pattern in which traits are governed by more than one gene.
