Final Flashcards

1
Q

How are new chemicals identified and characterized for pharmacological activity? (4 EPPC)

A
  • Extraction
  • Purification
  • Predictions
  • Characterization
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2
Q

What series of experiments should psychoactive chemicals pass? (3)

A
  • Animal behaviour
  • Physiological measures
  • Biochemical assays
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3
Q

In coffee Primary actives are

A

methylxanthines

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4
Q

Coffee:
_ (-rgic)→base nucleus

A

purine

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5
Q

Metabolism: Caffeine→ (3)

A

theophylline, theobromine and paraxanthine

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6
Q

Additional chemicals and sources of coffee:

Chlorogenic acids- induce (phase II _ , like _ ) _ enzymes
* Dihydrocaffeic acid- anti- _ with vascular benefits (promotes _ production)
* Kahweol and cafestol- di_ , increase phase _ enzymes, induce anti- _ genes, but elevate _

A

(phase II transferases, like GST) liver enzymes
inflammatory, NO
terpenes, II, stress, cholesterol

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7
Q
  • Coffee and tea are the most common anti- _ sources
A

oxidant

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8
Q

Medical indications for caffeine

Respiratory stimulation in _ infants
* 2nd most commonly prescribed NICU drug (after _ )
* PDE4 stimulation/inhibition increases [cAMP] in _ _ _
* Asthma → bronchoconstrictor/dilator
* Migraines→increase/reduces cranial blood flow

A

premature
antibiotics
inhibition, rhythmogenic preBötC complex
dilator
reduces

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9
Q

t/f: Caffeine is the most commonly consumed psychoactive substance on the planet

A

t

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10
Q

Caffeine distribution - 3

A

Amphipathic
* Rapid
* Widely distributed

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11
Q

Caffeine absorption - 3

A
  • Ingestion
  • Small intestine
  • 45 min to peak
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12
Q

Caffeine metabolism

A

Limited or no first-pass
* CYP1A2 → demethylation
* Paraxanthine (84%) → increases blood glycerol/fatty acids via
lipolysis
* Theobromine (12%) → dilates vessels, increases urine volume
* Theophylline (4%) → inhibits PDE, increases [cAMP], relaxes
smooth muscle

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13
Q

Caffeine excretion

A

Kidney

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14
Q

Methyl]xanthine cellular drug actions
* Non-selective _ and _ antagonists
* Additional targets→ _ release, _ receptors
* _ and _ are ubiquitous

A

adenosine receptor (AR), phosphodiesterase (PDE)
Ca, GABA
ARs and PDE

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15
Q

Adenosine receptor signaling
* _ of all 3 major types
* 4 main sub-types are
* _ and _ play primary roles in caffeine effects
* Mostly _ -synaptic receptors that limit neurotransmitter _

A

Antagonist
A1, A2a, A2b, A3
A1 and A2a
pre, release

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16
Q

Adenosine Receptors form _ _
* At rest or to form a signaling complex
* 3 pair complexes

A

extensive pairs
A1-D1
* 2 A2a + 2 D2 * A1+A2a

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17
Q

Acute caffeine effects:
General _ effects
* Similar, _ compared to _, _
* Increased _ mobilization,

A

stimulant
milder, cocaine, amphetamines
fat

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18
Q

Caffeine physl mechanisms:
Increases _, _, _ release
* Long-term drinkers more/less likely to experience elevated heart rates/BP
* Constriction in _ vessels can treat _
* Diuretic- 300+ mg, increases _ blood flow, promotes _, prevents _ re-absorption by kidneys

A

NE, Glu, DA
less
cranial, headaches
Diuretic- 300+ mg, increases kidney blood flow, promotes micturition, prevents water/salt re-absorption by kidneys

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19
Q

Caffeine heart rate, bp, endurance mech:

Heart effects are complicated by peripheral and central mechanisms *
Inhibits _ enzymes which metabolize _
producing high cAMP levels
* Results in relaxation of _ but _ vasoconstricting effect
* Increases intracellular concentration of _ by increasing activation of calcium _
* Thought to increase _ _ of muscle

A

phosphodiesterase (PDE), cAMP
smooth muscle (vasodilation), central
calcium, channels
work capacity

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20
Q

Reinforcing mechanism of caffeine
* Good _ release in the _
* Likely due to blocking _
* Pre-synaptic A1 signal via _
* Also increases _ release in the NAc

A

dopamine, NAc
pre- synaptic A1 on DA-ergic VTA→NAc neurons
Gi/o
Glu

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21
Q

Caffeine facilitates wakefulness by disrupting adenosine signaling
* Extracellular _ increases during waking until a point is reached that triggers sleep
* Adenosine thought to come from metabolism of _ in _
* Stimulation of _ receptors by adenosine in the _ triggers _ release
* GABA release _ arousal systems
* Caffeine prevents _ this process
* This prevents _ release, preventing _

A

adenosine,
ATP in neurons
A2a, hypothalamus, GABA, inhibits
adenosine binding to A2a receptors and interrupts
GABA, inhibition of arousal systems→wakefulness

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22
Q

Coffee intake may reduce risk of _ disease
* Strong _ relationship between caffeine

A

Parkinson’s
inverse

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23
Q

Caffeine + heart attack risk
_ polymorphisms confer _ and _ metabolism rates
* _ copies of *1A = fast; At least _ copy of *1F = slow
* _ metabolizers show increased _

A

CYP1A2
fast (1A) and slow (1F)
2, 1
slow, dose-dependent risk

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24
Q

Caffeine chronic effects - TOLERANCE
Develops quickly/slowly
Tolerance to _, _, _, but not effects on _

A

quickly
cardiovascular, respiratory, sleep effects, mood

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25
Caffeine chronic effects - withdrawal 6 THE DIF
Headache, fatigue, decreased energy, irritability, thirst
26
Caffeine chronic effects - dependence Develops quickly/slowly
quickly
27
Long term health risks of caffeine Osteoporosis- due to * Increased risk of _ due to stimulant effects * Adenosine receptor antagonists may be _ due to regulating synaptic neurotransmitter levels Use during pregnancy * Many women drink caffeine during pregnancy; Effects on the fetus are _
increased calcium elimination and reduced dietary Ca absorption panic attacks anti- depressants inconclusive
28
Nootropic:
cognitive enhancers
29
Does caffeine improve memory * Acute doses increase _ _activation in the _ * _ is linked to LTP * Remembering objects was better if learning while on caffeine
Yes, , seems to positively affect learning and memory BDNF and TrkB , hippocampus BDNF
30
Taurine – Monster, Red bull * Anxiolytic→may be due to glycine receptor activation and increased IPSPs
31
What types of drugs are these L-theanine, Herbs – TCM herbs Ginkgo biloba & Panax ginseng, Ayurvedic herb Bacopa monnieri
Nootropics
32
Nicotine, amphetamines, Ritalin, afinil family are examples of
Nootropics
33
Eg of amphetamine nootropic
Adderall
34
Afinil family drug eg
Modafinil, Adrafinil, Armodafinil
35
Forms of tobacco product - 7
* Cigarettes * E-cigarettes * Cigars, cigarillos * Shisha * Smokeless * Patches * Gum
36
e-cig * Vaporize e-juice containing nicotine; usually glycerin or PG-based * No burning of plant material, no tar * Major marketing angle → cleaner smoke is healthier! * Flavours and additives caused severe adverse effects: * Diacetyl – butter flavour, obliterates lung tissue (bronchiolitis obliterans), ‘popcorn’ lung in factory workers * Vitamin E acetate – allergic reactions * Vapour damages immune system via ROS same as cigarettes, macrophages infiltrate lung tissue over time * Cause ‘throat catch’ → otherwise smooth, similar to cigarettes * Delivers higher nicotine dose per puff * 5-8x more than cigarette
37
Early electronic cigarette additives caused severe adverse effects, Vitamin E
38
Hookahs are better and worse than other forms Water cools smoke, less irritating, fewer particulates, but much longer sessions * Shisha is the most processed, flavoured tobacco form * Hot air vaporizes chemicals, produces 11x the CO by weight compared to cigarettes * Increased heart rate may be due to elevated CO in blood * Increased lung disease, oral/lung cancer risk
39
What is smoke? * Particulates → nicotine, water, tar, PAHs, benzo[a]pyrene, metals * Gases → nicotine, CO, CO2 , NO, nitrosamines, ammonia, nitrites, sulfur, alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, hydrocarbons * Particulates + gases = aerosol * First-hand → inhalation of smoke directly from burning tobacco * Second-hand → smoke that has already been inhaled by others * Third-hand → 1 st and 2nd -hand fumes from fingers, clothes, fabric, etc.
40
nicotine: Alkaloid, causes addiction * Competitive acetylcholine receptor (AChR) agonist * Both Ns pick up a hydrogen at low pH * Uncharged = free base * Protects the plant from pests
41
Nicotine has mono- and di-protonated forms governed by pH
42
Pharmacokinetics of nicotine absorption 1. Inhalation * Controlling pH in cigarettes optimizes lung absorption (free base) * Burning generates up to 4000 new chemicals * 1 cigarette = contains ~8 mg nicotine, delivers 0.5-2 mg, 60 mg is lethal * Pyrolysis, filter, side-stream smoke lower bioavailability * Art of the dose → 1-2 puffs/min, 2 sec long, 1-2 μg nicotine/kg body weight is delivered to the brain, one pack/day is optimal for brain stimulation 2. Oral (smokeless forms) * 3-4x greater nicotine absorption, area under the plasma vs time curve * Much slower rate of absorption
43
Absorption of different tobacco forms
44
Distribution of nicotine * Blood pH is 7.4 → 70% monoprotonated, 30% unprotonated * <5% is bound to plasma protein * Liver, kidney, spleen, lung get largest amounts * Adipose gets least amount
45
80% of binding sites in the brain are occupied after 1 cigarette
46
Most nicotine is converted to cotinine in the liver * Half life = 2 hrs * Aldehyde oxidases CYP2A6 and CYP2B6 are main enzymes * Monooxygenases process small amount * CYP2A6 mutation that slows metabolism results in lower tobacco use
47
nic distribution summary - 2
Brain, lungs, liver, spleen, kidney * Crosses placenta
48
nic metabolism - 4
Liver: * CYP2A6 * monooxygenases * 2 hr half-life
49
nic abs summary - 2
* Inhalation (11-20% bioavailable) * Oral (50-80% bioavailable)
50
nic excretion - 2
* Kidneys * Breast milk
51
Plasma [nicotine] peaks in the evening * Receptors re-sensitize over night * First daily cigarette is most pleasant
52
Acute effects of nicotine
Mostly sympathomimetic effects
53
mechanisms of tobacco and nicotine Affects ACh, DA, GABA, Glu NTs * Binds and depolarizes cells via nAChR * High affinity leads to inactivation of receptor → biphasic mechanism at high doses * Affects heart rate, BP, GI movement, motor commands, focus and mood * Acetaldehyde (from burning) may inhibit monoamine oxidases and boost NT levels, e.g. DA
54
mechanisms of tobacco and nicotine CNS receptors are located in: * Cortex, hippocampus, midbrain * Pre-synaptic receptors cause: * Increased glutamate release * Increased GABA release → quickly desensitize * Increased DA release
55
Reinforcing mechanism of nicotine via DA, Glu, GABA modulation in the VTA & NAc
56
Acute adverse effects * “Safe” additives turn bad after burning * Stimulation of the vomiting centre → common in first-time users * Headaches, nausea, disrupted autonomic nervous system functioning * Alternating tachycardia and bradycardia * Severe intoxication → seizures, hypotension, respiratory depression
57
Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in the brain * Heteropentameric receptors, alpha and beta subunits * Conduct cation (Na+ , Ca2+) influx to depolarize neurons * Pre- and post-synaptic * Trigger neuromuscular activity
58
Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in the brain Pre-synaptic increase NT release * Post-synaptic will depolarize the cell * Receptors inactivate if continuously exposed to agonist → nicotine has high affinity * Receptor subunit composition affects reinforcement and reward (alpha4, alpha6, alpha7, beta2) * α6 modulate locomotor responses * α7 facilitate glutamate release * β2 subunit knockout in mice prevents DA release, selfadministration stops * α4β2 receptor antagonists block reward
59
α4β2 nAChRs are most important for DA reinforcement Alpha6-beta2 nAChR mainly on DA-ergic terminals in NAc * α6β2 do not release DA after systemic nicotine administration α4β2 are main functional nAChRs on VTA DA-ergic soma Activating α4β2 on soma drive DA release and reinforcement
60
Inactivation rates depend on subunit composition α4β2 sub-type govern GABA release and inactivate quickly (after 30-60 seconds) and for a long time (1 hour) * α7 sub-types govern Glu release and are not inactivated * A single dose of nicotine injected into NAc elevates DA levels for 80 min
61
Tolerance to nicotine First uses are unpleasant → brain regions/circuits for dizziness, nausea, sweat * Little or no decrease in heart effects, tremor and peripheral vasoconstriction * Metabolic → increased enzyme activity, first cig is the best * Cellular → receptor inactivation, affects reward * Behavioural → mindset stages experience, ritual of smoking
62
Tolerance to nicotine nAChR expression increases, mostly α4β2 subtype * Enhances sensitivity to nicotine effects
63
nic withdrawal Physiological symptoms → headache, drowsiness, insomnia, increased appetite and weight gain, GI upset * Psychological → Craving, mood changes, irritability, anxiety, restlessness, depression, difficulty concentrating, poor judgement and psychomotor performance
64
Nicotine dependence If you must smoke within 30 min of waking up, chances are you’re addicted * Starts to occur within days of habit * Both physical and psychological dependence * Quick metabolism leads to withdrawal, seek another dose to avoid symptoms * Intensely cue-driven habit; after eating, while drinking, out with friends, after sex
65
Long-term adverse effects of tobacco Cancer → lung, liver, colorectal * Benzo(a)pyrene initiates cancer → intercalating agent * Nicotine enhances growth/metastasis, not initiation * Inhibits apoptotic signaling by binding α7 nAChRs on mitochondria → allows cells with damaged DNA to replicate
66
Nicotine promotes cancer growth and metastasis * Nicotine enhances cancer cell growth in vitro * Nicotine injections/patches on mice injected with cancerous cells display enhanced cancer growth * Does NOT initiate cancer formation
67
Nicotine promotes cancer growth and metastasis * Experimental design: * Mice given cancer * Treated with nicotine or saline for two weeks * Tumours were removed * Treatment continued * Re-examined lungs after two weeks * Nicotine treated mice re-grew tumours and developed new tumours
68
Long-term adverse effects of tobacco Accelerate skin aging due to peripheral vasoconstriction * Sexual dysfunction → impaired NO signaling prevents erections * Type 2 diabetes → stressed vasculature is insensitive to insulin
69
Long-term adverse effects of tobacco * Cataracts, macular degeneration * Tooth decay, periodontitis, IBS, Crohn’s * Infection * Rheumatoid arthritis, osteoporosis * Cardiovascular disease, like coronary heart disease (CHD), MI, ischemic stroke * COPD includes chronic bronchitis and emphysema2 * Caused by inflammation of airways covered in tar and ash deposits * Cilia function is impaired by PAH and ketones in smoke * ‘Smokers cough’ when quitting indicates recovery of cilial function
70
Long-term adverse effects of tobacco * Second-hand smoke, nonsmokers that live with smokers have higher rates of lung cancer, heart disease
71
Pregnancy and smoking Constriction of umbilical arteries, reduced oxygen May affect reward system leading to increased addiction risk Higher risk of stillbirth, premature or miscarriage, low birth weight * Cleft palate and lip risk goes up
72
Smoking cessation * Like safe injection sites, the goal is to provide safe nicotine to ease withdrawal and cravings * Very difficult; 74% of American smokers want to quit and 78% make a serious attempt → success rate is 6% * 3 day hump correlates with nicotine clearance * Is it harder to quit smoking or smokeless forms? Smokeless, higher doses
73
Smoking cessation * Earlier the better: at 30 years old reduce risk by 90%, at 45 years old reduce risk by 87%, at 50 years old reduce risk by 50% * Within 8 hours, blood [CO] normalizes * Within a week, heart, BP, circulation, breathing improve * Within 9 months, respiratory cilia recover * Within 1 year, CHD risk drops 50% * Within 5-10 years, risk of stroke matches non-smokers * Within 15 years, CHD risk matches non-smokers while lung cancer risk is 50% lower than smokers
74
Smoking cessation is big business Nicotine withdrawal must be overcome so cessation therapies offer nicotine without the hazards of smoking * Several forms include patches, gum, nasal spray, inhalers, lozenges and e-cigarettes * Gum can cause bad taste, irritate throat, induce nausea * Patches/spray can cause irritation * E-cigarettes might be effective, risk of reverting might by high
75
Pharmacological cessation aids Bupropion → antidepressant * nAChR antagonist, blocks the channel even when nicotine is present * DAT and NET inhibition * Helps reduce cravings * Varenicline → partial nAChR agonist, reduces reward and cravings * Methoxsalen and NicVAX are in development
76
Behavioural and psychosocial cessation aids * Counseling, stress management * Behaviour modification → identify and avoid risky situations * Combine with pharmacological treatments Large-scale awareness campaigns in N. America have lead to increased attempts to quit
77
difference between a sedative and a hypnotic? Sedatives * Relieve anxiety, cause relaxation, mild CNS depressants * Hypnotics * Cause drowsiness and sleep * Z-drugs (Ambien), orexin antagonists, melatonin agonists, anti-histamines
78
difference between sedative and hypnotic Anxiety * benzos → ‘aze’-pams (Valium diazepam, Klonopin clonazepam) * Anti-convulsants * Longer-acting drugs treat seizure disorder → Phenobarbital * Anesthesia * Short-acting drugs → Thiopental, midazolam, triazolam * Sedatives for calming * Hypnotics for sleeping e.g. zopiclone (Lunesta), zolpidem (Ambien)
79
Sedatives in the clinic * Progressively greater depression of electrical activity
80
Categorization based on duration of action In general, sedatives are a more lipophilic class of drug → faster onset due to rapid distribution * Within the sedative class, barbiturates and benzos are categorized based on their duration of action * Longer-acting are typically used as anticonvulsants, muscle relaxants, and anxiolytics * Shorter-acting are used as preanesthetic sedatives or to treat insomnia
81
Predicting chemical categorizations; long or short acting
82
Summary of common benzos and barbees
83
Absorption and distribution of sedatives * Routes of administration * Oral, rectal, injection * Absorption and distribution * Benzos * Less lipid soluble than barbiturates, absorbed more slowly, slower onset of action * Barbiturates and benzos are highly bound to plasma proteins * Cross placenta
84
Pharmacokinetics of sedatives - metabolism * In the liver by CYP450 system * Some produce active metabolites prolonging duration of action, e.g. chlordiazepoxide, diazepam * Midazolam t1/2 = 2 hours * Diazepam t1/2 = 100 hours * Takes 4-5 half-lives for elimination * Metabolism decreased in infants, pregnant women, those with liver disease, the elderly * Reduced muscle tone in infants causes inability to nurse that can last for months = floppy infant syndrome
85
GABAa r binding mechanism The receptor has five subunits arranged around a chlorideconducting pore * GABA binds between alpha and beta subunits * Benzos bind between alpha and gamma subunits in those receptors that contain these subunits
86
GABAa r binding mechanism Benzos * Bind to a site on the GABAA receptor, which increases the frequency of chloride channel openings * GABA receptors with benzo binding sites located in limbic system, reticular activating system, cortex * GABA receptors that control respiration don’t have many benzo sites Barbiturates * Have a more general effect on GABA receptors * When they bind, they enhance the affinity of the receptor for GABA, which increases the duration of time that the chloride channel is open, leading to neuronal inhibition * Can do this even when GABA is not present
87
Benzos are allosteric modulators, barbees are activators
88
Acute effects of sedatives Reduce muscle tone, impair coordination, and increase sedation and sleep * Total sleep time is increased * REM sleep and restorative deep sleep are reduced * Reduce anxiety, learning, memory, and can cause bizarre, uninhibited behaviors * Common side effects * Drowsiness, lethargy, dizziness, confusion, reduced libido, diminished concentration, incoordination, and impairment of driving skills * Prevent consolidation of short-term memories, especially alpha subunit-containing receptors; can last for months * Combined with alcohol to facilitate assault, e.g. GHB, rohypnol
89
Other dangers associated with sedatives * Effects on the Fetus * Rapid entry, increased half life due to under-developed liver * Potential increased risk of cleft palate, floppy infant syndrome, withdrawal * No risk of major malformations * Must weigh risks to fetus against risks of the mother going off the drug * Drug interactions * Synergistic with other depressants such as alcohol, opioids * Interact with other drugs metabolized by CYP450 system * Overdose, treated with flumazenil * Relatively rare for benzos by themselves * Alprazolam TI = 662-4342 * Barbiturates very low therapeutic index
90
Tolerance and chronic effects of sedatives Tolerance develops at different rates → receptor subunits shift * Tolerance develops for sedative, hypnotic effects (days to weeks) * Slowly to anxiolytic effects (3-4 months) * Does not develop for respiratory depression * Users can require 40x original dose * Barbees * Cellular and metabolic mechanisms * Benzos are well-known for producing tolerance * Chronic effects * Associated with daytime fatigue, accidents, depression, violence and increased overall mortality
91
Withdrawal and dependence Withdrawal is worse with short-acting drugs * Should be medically supervised due to hyperexcitability * Insomnia, anxiety, tremor, headache, confusion, and difficulty concentrating * Dependence and addiction * Both physical and psychological dependence * Benzos are not as strongly addictive as barbiturates
92
sedative Abuse potential is much lower than other drugs * In progressive schedules, animals exert less effort for sedatives compared to cocaine, opioid
93
Disinhibition of VTA DA-ergic neurons increases DA release in NAc GABA receptors are also present on DA-ergic neurons * Benzos cannot potentiate inhibition without GABA-mediated activation
94
In vivo recordings of benzo-evoked reinforcement Single unit recordings from neurons in mice * Midazolam (MDZ) increases VTA DA-ergic firing (left) * MDZ decreases VTA GABA-ergic interneuron firing (right) * Flu = flumazenil
95
Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) Pro-drugs gamma-butyrylactone and 1,4-butanediol are uncontrolled * GABAB receptor agonist → Gi/o-linked, inhibits Ca channels, activates GIRK * Both a neurotransmitter and an illegal drug * Precursor of GABA, Glu and Gly * Dose-dependent effects * Also affects dopamine, acetylcholine, serotonin, opioids * Sensation of GHB is similar to alcohol inebriation * High doses can lead to suppressed respiration, convulsions, coma, and death
96
Dose-dependent effects of GHB Low doses of GHB have a stimulatory effect At higher doses, GHB binds to GABA receptors and can cause sedation
97
Sources – cannabis plant species Emergent view: only one lineage, produces cannabis phytocannabinoid chemotypes e.g. THC and CBD (+others) → experience is chemical-dependent
98
When to harvest? Observe the trichomes Phytocannabinoids, terpenes, etc. are synthesized in heads
99
Cannabis extraction produces resin for second generation cannabis products Solvent or solvent-less extraction * Super-critical extraction * Goal: high purity or a single isolated compound
100
Legally produced and sold cannabis must pass quality testing and be labeled How to calculate THC% based on labeling: * % is mg per g (1/1000) * So 15% = 150 mg / 1 g = 150/1000 mg = 0.15 * THC vs. total THC (THC + THCA) per unit
101
Cannabinoids and other chemicals Most are in their acid forms in the plant * THC acid * Psychoactive * CBD acid * Anti-oxidant, anti-convulsant, anti-inflammatory, anti-anxiety, anti-psychotic, and neuro-protective
102
CBD has medical uses * Personalized cultivar selection, tailor the therapeutic effect to the disease and individual
103
cannnabis administration To optimize absorption, THCA → THC by heat or pressure * Inhalation, ingestion, oral-sublingual, topical
104
Comparing cannabis and cigarette smoke * Smoke is solid/liquid particulates and gases created during combustion * Similar levels of tar, CO, acetaldehyde, acetone, benzene, toluene, benzopyrene, HCN * Poorer filtration of cannabis smoked, more irritation * Toking and choking * Cannabis * → linked to increased risk of chronic cough, bronchitis * → no link to lung cancer, COPD * Water bongs, dabs may reduce harmful components and reduce irritation
105
Cannabinoid ADME Terpene profiling, vape temp * Routes of administration * Smoked * Joints, pipes, bongs, vaporizers * Ingested * Slower onset of effect, less predictability of action, but more user control * Absorption, distribution, metabolism * THC is very fat-soluble and easily crosses the blood brain barrier * Metabolized by CYP450 system * Metabolites can stay in body for days or even weeks
106
pharmacokinetic summary of cannabinoids adme
107
Endocannabinoid receptor biology Endogenous CBR ligands are arachidonoyl ethanolamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) discovered in 1992 and 1995, respectively CB1 expressed in the CNS (basal ganglia, cerebellum, hippocampus, cortex, amygdala), eye, pancreas, liver, skin, uterus and testes * CB2 expressed in immune cells, spleen, tonsils
108
acute effects of intoxication
109
Physiological mechanisms cannabis Pleasure, reward, giggles, enhanced perceptions (time is longer) * High CB1 expression in the hippocampus, cerebellum, basal ganglia, hypothalamus and cortex * Analgesia via CB1-mediated blockage of pain neurotransmission * Stimulant- Dose-dependent heart rate increase, skin vessels dilate flushing warmth core temp decreases, salivary gland vessels constrict drying mouth, eye vessels dilate leading to red, bloodshot eyes Energy metabolism, increased appetite and thirst via CB1 in hypothalamus, pancreas, liver * Reduced gastric secretions and GI inflammation → low endocannabinoids are linked to irritable bowel disease * CB1 in hypothalamus may influence sex drive, sperm production, fertilization, implantation, fetal development and suckling in newborns; also modulates DA and 5-HT release
110
cannabis Cellular mechanisms of action * Retrograde signaling * Cannabinoids modulate the release of other NTs
111
cannabis cellular targets of action Binds several receptors including: * CB1/2, * transient receptor potential cation channels (e.g. TRPV1/2), and * 5HT2 sub-type * CB1/2 linked to Gi/o * TRPV1/2 are Na+ /Ca2+ channels * Pleiotropic signaling → multiple downstream targets and effects
112
cannabis Tolerance * Regular use of marijuana will cause metabolic, cellular and behavioural tolerance * Faster metabolism, reduced CB1 receptor expression * Reduced high, hypothermic, cardiovascular, analgesic, locomotor and immune effects Withdrawal * Mild burn-out (i.e. lethargy, apathy), perhaps to certain cultivars * If withdrawal symptoms occur, they are usually not severe * Chronic users will retain higher levels of residual metabolites, eases withdrawal with elimination over months? dependence * Limited, slight psychological * Less addictive than other drugs of abuse, but can be addictive in some * Treatment for cannabis dependence typically involves psychological approaches
113
cannabis acute adverse effects Green-out – vomiting, nausea, complicated 5-HT signaling Anti-5-HT effects account for anti-emetic activity vs. chemo * Higher THC impairs learning, memory, concentration via hippocampal effects, also inhibits LTP * Psychosis- hallucinations, delusions of control, grandiosity Anxious, paranoid * Heart rhythm complications * Pesticide contamination
114
cannabis overdosing No, not fatally * Not a single case of fatal overdose directly caused by cannabis * Comparative risk assessment relative to alcohol or tobacco is very low14 * Based on toxicity studies, 4 g of orally administered THC is lethal in a 70 kg human15 * 4 g-oral x 0.2-bioav-oral = 0.8 g-plasma / 0.3 bioav-smoking = 2.67 g-smoked * The average 0.5 g pre-roll at 15% total THC contains 0.5 g-preroll x 150 mg-THC / g-preroll = 75 mg THC (75/2667 = 1/35th of 2.67 g) * An individual would have to: 1. Ingest 400 10 mg THC capsules in < 4 hours, 2. Spray 133 mL of 30 mg/mL THC oil in their mouth in < 3 hours, or 3. Smoke 35 0.5 g 15% total THC flower in < 2 hours Lachenmeier & Rehm (2015); WHO Expert Report on THC Toxicology (2018)
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Acute adverse effects cannabis * Decreased attention, reaction time, hand-eye coordination and concentration can affect driving ability, but stoned drivers may be defensive drivers
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Long-term health risks cannabis * Increased risk of chronic cough, bronchitis * Reduced ability for egg implantation, increased miscarriage rates * Supressed LH release, impaired ovulation, low birth weight * Lowered testosterone, sperm count, more abnormal sperm, increased side-swimming in sperm * Most effects appear to be reversible Gateway drug hypothesis → the younger teens are when they first use alcohol, tobacco and/or cannabis, the more often they use these drugs, the more likely they are to use other drugs and possibly become dependent
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Volcanoes and vapes Increased long-term cough and bronchitis incidence Combustion/pyrolysis generates carcinogens * Oxygen + high temperature * Vaping delivers de-carbed chemicals without burning * THC (and THCA) vaporizes at 157°C * Select the chemical composition of vape smoke by controlling temperature
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Vaping is well-tolerated and contains fewer combustion products Volcano administration results in similar THC delivery while reducing CO delivery
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Vaping allows users to ‘select’ chemicals in smoke Known as the ‘entourage effect’ * Chemical interactions with receptors enhance each others effects
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Mechanism of reinforcement * Increases DA levels in rats by 100% (5 mg/kg i.v. dose) * 8 mg of THC inhaled in humans raises DA levels 136% 45-85 min post-administration (Bossong et al. 2009) * However, 10 mg delivered orally induced no measurable DA increase * Likely through CB1-mediated inhibition of GABA release in the VTA, i.e. disinhibition of DA-ergic VTA→NAc neurons * Striatal DA release by THC may underlie link to schizophrenia
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Does cannabis cause bloodshot eyes? Noradrenaline (NA) causes narrowing of blood vessels * Anandamide (AEA) relaxes those blood vessels * AEA is dependent on CB1 receptor and nitric oxide (NO) * CBD induces relaxation of arteries
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Acute effects of intoxication * Munchies * Result from hunger signaling * Increased smell, olfaction sensitivity * Increased pleasure when eating → induces DA release
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Hunger signaling * Olfactory afferent information coming in via bi-polar mitral neurons * Inhibitory GABA-ergic interneurons project to mitral neuron soma * Glu-ergic neuron expressing CB1 presynaptic receptors triggers inhibitory GABA-ergic interneurons in the main olfactory bulb (MOB)
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Mechanism of enhanced olfactory sensitivity Glu-ergic inputs trigger GABAergic firing * This sets baseline mitral afferent firing to the brain
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Augmented olfaction by cannabinoids * Endocannabinoids naturally reduce GABA-ergic interneuron firing leading to increased transmission through mitral cells * Disinhibition of mitral neurons and increased afferent inputs to the brain hypersensitizes smell → animals feed
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How to study a physiological (in vivo) process? Gene/protein knock-outs
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Physiological mechanism linked to the munchies behaviour * Anterior olfactory nucleus + piriform cortex = centrifugal Gluergic input to the MOB * Cortical feedback projections to the MOB regulate food intake via CB1 signaling
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Summary of pro-appetite effects * Increased olfactory sensitivity triggers feeding * Users report greater pleasure from food * Appetite-related hormones are modulated by cannabinoids
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Anti-emetic activity of cannabinoids Nausea and vomiting * Primary signal is 5HT3R-mediated in the medulla by afferent input from the gut * THC inhibits 5HT release in medulla via pre-synaptic CB1 * THC binds and decreases activity of 5HT3 receptors * CBD is an agonist at 5HT1A auto-receptors, prevents 5HT release; also antagonizes 5HT3R
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cannabis Acute adverse effects Bad driving * Mostly affects automated tasks (staying in lane) relative to attention tasks (reversing, distancing) * Doubles risk of severe injury/death * Synergistic effect when combined with alcohol, sub-effective doses create impairment Spice, K2 synthetic cannabis * Contamination with toxins, e.g. rat poison (brodifacoum), causes severe bleeding
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cannabis long term health risks Cancer Cannabinoids may protect cells from oxidative stress
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cannabinoid detection and testing Colorimetric- ELISA or dipsticks * Immunoassays, lateral flow * Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) * Roadside screening tests are lateral flow assays, typically
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Sources of hallucinogens Fungi: * Claviceps purpurea fungus → lysergic acid (LA) * ~200 Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Conocybe spp. → psilocybin * Amanita muscaria (fly agaric) → ibotenic acid and muscimol * Animal: * Colorado river toad → bufotenin
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souorces ofo hallucinogens Plants: * Ipomoea nil (Morning glory) seeds → LA amide (LAA; ergine) Lophophora williamsii (peyote) → mescaline * Ayahuasca (made from Psychotria viridis and Banisteriopsis caapi vines) → N,N-dimethyltryptamine, (DMT), harmine, harmaline * Anadenanthera peregrine and Virola trees → DMT and bufotenin * Atropa belladonna, Datura, Henbane, Mandrake → atropine, scopolamine and hyoscyamine * Tabernanthe iboga roots → ibogaine * Myristica fragrans (nutmeg and mace) → myristicin, elemicin
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Chemical forms of hallucinogens * Indoleamine nucleus Phenethylamine nucleus * Catechol nucleus Dissociatives and deliriants
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Medical uses are gaining traction - hallucinogen * Set and setting are foundational to accessing subconscious and avoid bad trips * Not all hallucinogens are safe Cluster headaches may be due to dilated vessels, cause intense pain on one side of head Elevated 5HT-induced vasoconstriction
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Classifying hallucinogens by acute effect * Psychedelic (a.k.a. phantastica) - vivid sensations, altered perceptions and reality * Users are still responsive, communicative * Deliriant – vivid, maybe confusing, fantasy * Dissociative – analgesia, amnesia, catalepsy, detached reality Rosenthal (2019) * Big 3 effects: * Hallucination – an experience involving the perception of something that may not actually be present * Illusion – altered and distorted perceptions, thoughts, feelings, insights, awareness * Delusion – fixed belief, unchanged by conflicting evidence
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Hallucinogens vary in their EC50 Trips are dependent on mindset (expectation, experience and personality) & setting Potency (high→low): LSD→mescaline
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hallucinogen adme Focus on prototypical psychedelic LSD & 5HT2A receptor biology which affects frontal cortex thought and perception plus locus coeruleus & thalamus
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Administration of LSD *Ingested, injected, transdermal * 10-300 μg *Blotting paper, sugar cube, gel caps, pressed tablets/microdots Microdosing- sub-psychedelic amounts
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Pharmacokinetic summary of LSD
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Stages of LSD trips * Generally, trips occur in stages after initial onset: * 1 (0-30 min)- physiological changes outside the brain, sympathomimetic, dizziness, nausea, muscle tremors, numbness * 2 (30-120 min)- alteration of perceptions, familiar objects take on new appearances, time is lengthened, intense colors, patterns/textured illusions, movement in stable objects, intense sounds, smells, tastes, synesthesia * 3 (3-5 hr)- illusions continue, perception of self as mind/body disconnect, distorted body appearance, deeper sense of self
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Acute effects of LSD intoxication * Psychological: * Visual hallucinations and illusions * Synesthesia → overlapping senses, altered thalamic routing * Time and physical distortions * Intense emotion * Mystical, spiritual encounters * Introspection, ego dissolution * Cognitive → inability to concentrate/focus, preoccupation with trivial thoughts, impaired judgement, communicating with God or telepathy with other animals
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Behaviour and physiological mechanisms of LSD * Animals will not self-administer * Animals actually evoke effort to STOP administrations * Activates D2-like signaling in NAc, striatum * Not rewarding * May drive hallucinations * Sympathomimetic: * Increase BP * Vasoconstriction * Sweating * Dilated pupils
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Physiological mechanisms of LSD * LC fear centre, 5HT2A in other regions (e.g. mPFC) projects to LC, augments LC responses to regular events into extremely novel, seemingly new encounters * Thalamus- routing hub for sensations, mixing of inputs and outputs * Cortex- conscious perceptions
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Cellular mechanisms of LSD action * LSD is an agonist at 5-HT1A/B, 2A/B/C, 6 and 7; primarily 2A, likely others too * 5-HT receptors → GPCRs, several sub-types, signaling modes, biased agonism * 2A: * High pre-synaptic expression in cortex → perception and information processing centres *Controls transcriptional programming even after a single use * Presynaptic in mPFC, * Governs neuroplastic changes via glutamate signaling *Complementary actions by other 5-HT receptors and DA receptors * High affinity agonist at D2-like receptors, coupled to Gi/o * Likely underlies aversive conditioning, lack of self-administration
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receptor structure function Drug-receptor conformation explains high occupation time → 221 min, depends on L229
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Drug-receptor interactions * Note the conformational differences * This allows selection of signaling capabilities * Biased agonism via 5- HT2A
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Receptor conformations bias signaling Gαq → PKC and Ca2+ pathways are activated by non-hallucinogenic chemicals * Prolonged receptor occupation shifts activation away from Gαq * Hallucinogens activate β-arrestin → desensitization/internalization, MAPK pathways
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Most hallucinogens do not evoke positive reinforcement LSD is very low on abuse potential scale * One exception is deliriants (i.e. muscarinics) * M2/4 are Gi/o-linked * M5 is Gq -linked, elevates intracellular Ca2+ * Why do users use? Reasons often different than other drugs of abuse, recreationally/socially
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Psilocybin (from Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Conocybe spp.) Ingested, 3-6 hour duration * Milder version of LSD * No flashbacks, no lethal cases * Metabolized to psilocin in gut and liver * 5HT2A agonist * Sympathomimetic, altered time and perceptions, hallucinations, heightened emotions * Not addictive, rapid tolerance
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DMT (from P. viridis, A. peregrine, Virola) Snort, smoke, inject Destroyed in the gut – might treat worms, parasites 5-HT2A/C and 1A agonist, many other receptors * No tolerance * Physiological effects similar to LSD, psilocybin * Psychological effects- intense, vivid hallucinations, emotions, introspection, connection to surroundings
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Harmine & harmaline (from B. caapi β-carboline chemicals * Selective and reversible monoamine oxidase-A inhibitors * Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors → may be useful in Alzheimer’s disease * Stimulate striatal DA release at high doses → used to treat Parkinson’s patients
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Ayahuasca (DMT + β-carbolines) MAO inhibitors protect DMT from degradation → enhanced distribution to the brain * Activates vision and memory brain regions * Powerful visions, intense emotion, profound introspection Adverse effects: vomiting, diarrhea
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Bufotenin Close chemical similarity to 5-HT * Common effects include drooling, heart palpitations, elevated BP, oxygen depletion, cramped muscles, blurred vision, headache, toad breath Hallucinations likely caused by decreased oxygen to optic nerve Toads produce toxic glycosides too → dysrhythmias
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Nutmeg and mace Ingested, inhaled, insufflated * Lower doses (5 g) cause very mild hallucinations, disorientation, confusion, feelings of unreality, euphoria * Higher doses (5-30 g) cause hallucinations, facial flushing, dizziness, apprehension, nausea, vomiting; unreality can persist for days
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Psychedelic microdosing * Sub-hallucinogenic doses, 1 day-on/2 days-off, for a few weeks = microdosing, may still get physiological effects outside of the brain * Primarily LSD (5-20 μg) and psilocybin (1-2 mg) * Emerging studies support beneficial effects on mood, creativity, outlook * Not random sampling, self-reported benefits, detrimental effects reported too * 5-HT underlies ‘complex’ cognitive and emotional functions in humans, e.g. language, altruism, empathy * 5HT2A expression in sub-cortical nuclei may alter functional connectivity → support perception, memory, attention * Cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical feedback loops, gating theory
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Plant-derived anti-cholinergics Plant-derived anti-cholinergics Low doses relieve anxiety, induce sleep * High doses cause hallucinations, amnesia, muscular paralysis Atropa belladonna (nightshade) Datura stramonium (datura Hyoscyamus niger (henbane)
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Plant-derived anti-cholinergics * 3 primary tropane alkaloids atropine, scopolamine, hyoscyamine * High (near toxic) doses required for hallucinations * Block muscarinic AChRs- dilate pupils, increase heart rate, dry secretions
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Anti-cholinergics * Produce hallucinations, but don’t remember it * Physiological effects: elevates heart rate, dry mouth, lack of perspiration, constipation, difficulty urinating * Can be fatal – rapid heart rate, hyperthermia, asphyxia * Usually no euphoria * Prevent ACh-mediated activation
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Dissociatives Phencyclidine (PCP) and ketamine anaesthetics * Amanita muscaria, Salvia divinorum * Completely removed from reality, detached Produce reinforcement in animal models, unique amongst hallucinogens but not due to augmented DA release in the NAc
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Phencyclidine (PCP) Inhaled, dip a cigarette in free-base and smoke it * Ingested, insufflated, or injected (hardcore users) * Duration 4-8 hours, TI 10-15 * Diverse effects dependent on dose * 5mg: Anaesthetic, analgesic, stimulant, depressant, convulsant, hallucinogen * 10 mg any combination of: muscle rigidity, loss of pain sensitivity, agitation, mood swings, combative, sympathomimetic, visual/auditory hallucinations, detachment * Blocks NMDARs in cortex and hippocampus * Increased synthesis and release of DA causing agitation, stimulation, locomotor activity * Delirium, confusion, paranoia, impaired memory may last for days or weeks * Toxic doses (>20 mg) can cause convulsions, respiratory failure, coma, death, but most deaths are due to behaviours while tripping
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Ketamine Rosenthal (2019) * Ingested, inhaled, insufflated, injected * 15-20 min onset, 35-60 min duration * Same effects as PCP, shorter acting * Blocks NMDARs in cortex and hippocampus * Increase synthesis and release of DA causing agitation, stimulation, locomotor activity
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Cellular mechanisms of PCP, vit. K * Block the NMDAR ion channel * Affect Glu, NE, DA, ACh, 5-HT neurotransmitters Dependence on PCP, vit. K * Moderate risk, mildly reinforcing but no DA increases in the NAc * PCP self-administration in animal models * Mostly psychological, very slight physical dependence in humans * Vit. K dependence is linked to access, not neurochemistry
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Adverse effects of PCP, vit. K ref * Psychosis and analgesia lead to damaging behaviours * Attempting ‘superhuman’ feats * Ketamine cystitis * Arrest bladder cell growth, cause cell death * Causes bloody urine, pain, incontinence * Long-term users experience memory loss, speech problems, delusional thinking
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amanita muscaria * Ingested, onset 30-90 min, duration up to 12 hrs * Withdrawal headaches, amnesia, sleepiness can last for days * Active chemical is excreted unchanged in urine * Alter body perception, euphoria, dizziness, vivid hallucinations * Muscle twitches, sweat, salivation, constricted pupils, lowered BP * Muscimol is GABAAR agonist responsible for most effects * Ibotenic acid binds NMDARs * Fatal dose is around 15 mushroom caps
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Salvia divinorum Inhaled, chewed; 15-120 min duration * Mild alteration of consciousness to full psychedelic trip * Vivid visuals, sensory and time disturbances, detachment and floating through time * Nausea, slurred speech, chills * Very high dose can cause brain lesions * Salvinorin A – 1 of 3 non-alkaloid hallucinogens * Potent kappa opioid receptor agonist * Causes dysphoric effects, anxiety, fear, confusion in most cases
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New psychoactive substances (NPSes) Chemical alteration of existing hallucinogens
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2-C drugs 5HT receptor agonists, likely other receptors/transporters too * Produce hallucinations, stimulant effects * Adverse effects: seizure, extremity rigidity, lethal
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Bromo -dragonFLY * Benzodifuran * Duration 1-3 days! * Binds 5-HT1 and 2A receptors * Severe vasoconstriction via alpha adrenergic receptors * Similar effects to LSD * Narrow therapeutic window, several overdose deaths have been reported
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N-benzyl-oxy-methyl (NBOM) drugs Several ‘N-bomb’ derivatives (list), 2C-I-NBOM is most common * Potent 5HT2A agonists
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bath salts history Designer drugs, include several evolving classes of stimulants * Resemble amphetamine + methylene ring feature of MDMA Cathinones, ‘-lones’ and ‘-drones
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bath salts sources and forms Khat plant * Bath salts, resemble Epsom salt crystals
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bath salt Chemical structure resembles amphetamine * Beta-ketonated amphetamines * Ketone reduces lipophilicity, reduces transport across BBB * 4-methylmethcathinone = mephedrone, most common * Compare amphetamine, cathinone, meth, methcathinone, mephedrone
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Chemical evolution of bath salts * Synthetic and highly modified: * Addition of methylenedioxy ring * Addition of pyrrolidine * Extended chains * Pyrrolidine makes it more lipophilic, more easily crosses BBB, tend to be more potent * 3rd generation flakka (αpyrrolidinovalerophone)
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Recreational effects of 3Ms * Sympathomimetic effects, high energy * Euphoria * Arousal * MDPV is stimulant at low doses, induces bizarre behaviours at higher doses
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Physiological mechanisms of 3Ms * Sympathomimetic (via DA, NA + 5HT increases): * Agitation, hyperthermia, tachypnea (rapid breathing), tachycardia (rapid heart rate), hypertension, cardiac arrest * Hyperthermia leads to rhabdomyolysis, kidney failure * Euphoria via elevated NAc DA * Increased DA and 5HT in NAc of rats * Striatal DA elevations cause locomotor activity increases in mice and rats * Hyperthermia, hypertension, cardiac arrest, and serotonin syndrome are most common adverse effects
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Cellular mechanisms of action Without pyrrolidine ring: similar to * Bind DAT, SERT, NET * Enter terminals via SERT * Interact with TAAR * Leak cytoplasmic neurotransmitter stores, reverse transporter, inhibit VMAT * Mephedrone and methylone stimulate non-exocytotic release of DA, 5HT, NE methylone MDPV mephedrone * With pyrrolidine ring: similar to * Blocks transporters, does not reverse transporters * MDPV is a potent DAT/NET blocker, weaker SERT activity amphetamine
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Potency of bath salts on DAT/SERT * IC50 represents the concentration of drug required to block 50% of uptake * Lower IC50 = more potent Most of these bath salts are as or more potent than cocaine, amphetamine DAT/SERT of 806 means that MDPV is 806x more potent at DATs compared to SERTS * If you synthesized a new drug, what type of test could you perform and what ratio would you want? Structure-activity relationship → larger carbon tail + pyrrolidine = highest activity at DAT
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Mechanisms of 3M reinforcement 3M bath salts bind DAT * Mephedrone and methylone enter terminals, displace DA into synapse and reverse the DAT * MDPV does not enter terminal
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Adverse effects off bath salts on behaviour at high doses * Violence, homicidal combative behaviour, self-mutilation, excited delirium syndrome (ExDS) * Panic attacks, paranoia, suicidal thoughts, confusion, psychosis
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Cathinone case reports- fatal DA+NA+5HT levels Symptoms are related to surge in levels of dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin in the periphery and include: * Hyperthermia (indicated as primary problem in several deaths – many users take off clothes) * Leads to rhabdomyolysis, kidney failure * Tachycardia (elevated heart rate, sometimes followed by bradychardia), hypertension, chest pain * Panic attacks, paranoia, suicidal thoughts, confusion, psychosis
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Adverse effects of 3Ms * Water intoxication → hyponatremia * 5HT causes secretion of anti-diuretic hormone, water re-absorption in kidneys * Polydipsia (thirst), evoked by hyperthermia/high metabolism, an attempt to cool down * Excessive sweating causes loss of Na+ * Increased cranial pressure caused tonsillar herniation of cerebellum * Pressure on medulla lead to respiratory depression, cardiac arrest * Patient died of mephedrone overdose
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Tolerance, withdrawal and dependence Rhesus monkeys show higher self-administration for longer with MDPV and α-PVP compared to cocaine and meth * Rats display escalating drug-taking behaviour when given free access to MDPV * Mephedrone causes CPP in mice and rats * Altogether, bath salts appear to have a very high abuse potential
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Categories of PEDs Anabolic/androgenic steroids (AAS) & hormones
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Forms of AAS Major PEDs * Based off testosterone steroid nucleus * Altered to enhance muscle building type 1 Esters * Prolonged half-lives * Hydrolyzed to testosterone * Aromatized to estrogens by aromatase type 2 19-nor-testosterone (nandrolone) derivatives * Prolonged half-lives * Reduced androgenic effects * 80% less aromatization compared to type 1 type 3 17α-alkyl derivatives * Greatly reduced liver metabolism * Not converted to estrogen * Increased anabolic effect
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administration Pyramiding – increasing doses followed by decreasing dose * Stacking – Using multiple steroids * Cycling – alternating periods of use, co-ordinated with training or testing schedules * Certain users (e.g. bodybuilders) may take 100- 1000x therapeutic doses
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pharmacokinetics summary of AAS
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Steroid physiology, critical tissues and enzymes Fundamental male and female differences are determined by sex steroids * Testosterone converted to DHT by 5α-reductase * Aromatase is rate-limiting step for estrogen production * Direct transcriptional regulation and signaling * Muscle mass, tendon/joint/bone health * Levels are cyclical, negative feedback * Production in reproductive tissues (e.g. ovaries/adrenal glands, testes stimulated by FSH/LH from anterior pituitary * Influence physiological effects via cellular mechanisms
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Mechanisms of AAS action * Anabolic steroids bind androgen receptor * Higher concentrations cause additional receptor binding, e.g. estrogen receptors * Drug-receptor complexes translocate to nucleus, bind specific DNA sequences * Activates gene transcription mRNA production, make new protein e.g. to build muscle * Steroids shift stem cells towards muscle cell differentiation, as opposed to adipose cell
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Mechanism(s) of reinforcement * Many users report euphoria * May come from increased beta-endorphin levels which decrease GABA release onto VTA DA-ergic neurons * When steroids modulate GABAA receptors, DA-ergic mesolimbic neurons increase firing rate
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AAS produce massive weight gains, virtually all muscle * When treated with AAS animals showed: * Increased number of myonuclei (blue) * Increased muscle fibre cross-sectional area (CSA; green)
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Cellular ‘memory’ allows rapid muscle building after period of inactivity More pronounced CSA response after 11 week break in steroid-treated animals
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cellular mechanisms of action Trenbolone: * 19-nor derivative of testosterone * Higher affinity for androgen receptors * Not a substrate for 5α-reductase nor aromatase * Induces myotrophic effects without unwanted effects * Reverses expression of atrophic genes (e.g. MuRF1) * Increases expression of anabolic genes (e.g. IGF-1)
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Tolerance * Even after a single dose * Presence of steroids inhibits their own production – negative feedback Withdrawal * Depression, mood swings, fatigue, headache, insomnia, lack of energy, no appetite, body dissatisfaction dependence * 30% of users become dependent * More likely at higher doses * Mostly psychological due to cycle length * Want to avoid negative affect
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long term health risks of steroids Steroid receptors are present in multiple tissues, e.g. muscle and brain * Lack of knowledge of how many and which genes are turned on * Activation of other genes leads to unwanted, dangerous side effects Increased blood pressure, cholesterol and heart abnormalities “’Roid” rage * Increased aggression, anger, rage especially in dependent users * Psychosis and depression also occur more frequently * GABAA , NMDA and 5HT receptors can bind endogenous neurosteroids Anterior hypothalamus (AH) is the aggression centre * Activation of D2 in AH results in aggression and violence in animal models * Moderate doses in adolescence increases D2 expression in AH * Arginine vasopressin is excitatory and potentiates aggression, while 5HT is inhibitory and decreases aggression * Steroid exposure enhances vasopressin, reduces 5-HT effects * Chronic nandrolone increases aggression in mice Reduces 5-HT receptor mRNA in PFC, hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdala Depression is a common effect reported by steroid abusers * Abuse is linked to reduced brainderived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels and correlates with depressed behaviours * BDNF stimulates neuronal growth in hippocampus
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Testing * Clinical steroids are safe and easily detected * Designer steroids: * Modified by clandestine labs * Undetectable * No one knows the mechanisms, longterm effects * How are samples tested? * Usually urine, tested for known metabolites * Can run HPLC, ELISA, GC-MS
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Technologies and assays, innovating * Chemical and immunoassays are most common * Improved technology allows detection of unique metabolites, lower thresholds for detection Chemical haptenation – a small molecule that binds a macromolecule (e.g. protein) to produce an immune reaction