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Geology > final > Flashcards

final Flashcards

1
Q

3 kinds of fossils

A

body, trace, chemical

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2
Q

stress

A

the amount of force per unit area

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3
Q

confining stress

A

stress is equal in all the three directions of the space for a certain point in the Earth’s crust;

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4
Q

differential stress

A

occurs in the case of crustal movements; stress is higher in certain directions

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5
Q

differential stress (compression)

A

stress pushes on rock

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6
Q

differential stress (tension)

A

stress stretches the rock

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7
Q

differential stress (shear)

A

stress is applied in two opposite directions

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8
Q

folds

A

result of ductile deformation

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9
Q

faults

A

result of brittle deformation

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10
Q

anticline classifications

A

upright, inclined, overturned, recumbent

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11
Q

strike-dip faults

A

displacement is horizontal

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12
Q

drip-slip faults

A

vertical displacement

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13
Q

oblique-slip faults

A

horizontal and vertical displacement

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14
Q

normal faults

A

downward displacement

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15
Q

reverse faults

A

upward displacement

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16
Q

thrust faults

A

reverse faults, dip at low angle

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17
Q

body fossils

A

direct or altered remains of ancient organisms (teeth, shells, etc)

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18
Q

trace fossils (ichnofossils)

A

evidence of the activity of ancient organisms

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19
Q

recrystallization

A

This process involves the conversion of the original minerals of the test into a different mineral.

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20
Q

what is the most common transformation in recrystallization?

A

aragonite to calcite

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21
Q

aragonite and calcite are…

A

both carbonates but have different crystal structures

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22
Q

what changes in recrystallization

A

mineralogical composition; chemical composition stays the same

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23
Q

moldic preservation

A

The original test or shell is dissolves

- the shape of the former organism is given by the lithified sediment infill.

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24
Q

replacement

A

particular case of moldic preservation

the space from the dissolution of the original test is filled by a new mineral.

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25
Q

pyritization

A

most frequent case of replacement

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26
Q

permineralization

A

Permineralization results from the filling of the pore spaces usually by opal or chalcedony

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27
Q

carbonization

A

Occurs when the fossils are buried deep into the Earth’s crust and all the organic material is expelled, excepting for the carbon.

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28
Q

characteristics of carbonization

A

fossilization that is often in plants, algae, and fish

these fossils have a black appearance

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29
Q

congealment

A

This kind of fossilization occurs at high latitudes, where there is a thick layer of frozen soil and rock at the uppermost part of the Earth’s crust.

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30
Q

fossilization in amber

A

best preserved, organic resin to preserve bodies

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31
Q

fossilization in tar pits

A

occurs in zones with oil and viscous fluids (California)

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32
Q

stenos principles - principle of layer superposition

A

In any sequence of undisturbed layers, the older layer is at the bottom of the succession and the younger layers occupy a progressively higher position

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33
Q

stenos principles - principle of successive layer formation

A

At the time of formation of a layer only fluid was above it. Accordingly, none of the above existing layers in the stratigraphical succession existed at that time.

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34
Q

stenos principles - principle of original layer horizontality

A

he stated that originally, the layers should have been horizontal. Accordingly, the steeply inclined layers can be regarded as indicative for an episode of crustal disturbance.

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35
Q

stenos principles - principle of lateral layer continuity

A

layers are laterally continuous

36
Q

1774 Georges louis leclerc

A

first calculation of earths age

- ended the influence of creationist ideas in science

37
Q

mud cracks

A

Mud-cracks are sedimentary structures that form frequently at the surface of the Earth, in the fine sediments that are exposed to the atmospheric conditions during the arid periods.

38
Q

borrowings

A

produced by those organisms that develop their life cycles buried in sediments, as adaptations to avoid the predators in the open waters, or for feeding purposes.

39
Q

Steno refined this principle by admitting that at the time of deposition, layers could reflect the irregularities at the basin floor.

A

Principle of original layer horizontality

40
Q

conformable succession

A

strata without depositional breaks

41
Q

non-conformable succession

A

strata are separated by surfaces of discontinuity encompassing substantial amounts of geological time (unconformities)

42
Q

disconformity

A

a surface of erosion between younger and older beds parallel with one another.

43
Q

angular unconformity

A

erosional surface on tilted or folded strata over which younger strata have been deposited.

44
Q

nonconformity

A

erosion surface that cuts into metamorphic or igneous rocks is covered by sedimentary rocks.

45
Q

principle of inclusion (igneous)

A

states that the inclusions within an igneous rock are older than the rock that includes them

46
Q

An inclusion in igneous rocks also is known as

A

xenolith

47
Q

principle of cross cutting (igneous)

A

states that a cross-cutting rock is younger than the cross-cut one

48
Q

what are the four eons

A

PHANEROZOIC
PROTEROZIC
ARCHEAN
HADEAN

49
Q

PHANEROZOIC

A

visible life forms

50
Q

PROTEROZIC

A

early life forms

51
Q

ARCHEAN

A

oldest rocks

52
Q

HADEAN

A

no rock record

53
Q

radioactive decay

A

Some of the isotopes are stable, other not. An unstable isotope nucleus can be transformed spontaneously into an isotope with a stable nucleus configuration.

54
Q

half-life

A

time it takes for one half of the atoms of the original unstable parent element to decay to atoms of a new and more stable daughter element.

55
Q

the dominant elements in the life forms today (CHON)

A 
carbon
hydrogen
oxygen 
nitrogen 
(sulfur and phosphorous are also present)
56
Q

what was the starting point of oparins model

A

the fact that the plant cells are too complex to have been formed without a long process of inorganic evolution.

57
Q

Alexandr Ivanovic Oparin (1896-1980) postulated that it is possible that CHON molecules could have been formed before life begun to give rise to the first cells.

A
58
Q

Oparin model showed

A

the Earth’s original atmosphere was a reducing one, without much free molecular oxygen.

59
Q

CHON molecules could be accumulated in a ____ atmosphere.

A

reducing (this is early in the atmosphere age)

60
Q

primordial soup

A

simple organic molecules could have accumulated at the earths surface and dissolved in water

61
Q

this group contains some of the oldest sedimentary rocks on earth

A

the Greenland isua supercrustal group

62
Q

isua supercrustal group

A

rare oxides and carbonates that do not form layers

- graphite levels indicate organic origin

63
Q

Miller and Urey experiment (1953) demonstrated …

A

monomers can be combined to form organic molecules

64
Q

polymerization

A

Combining the simple CHON molecules into larger molecules would result in the formation of polymers, a necessary step in the development of the life forms on Earth.

65
Q

example of polymerization

A

Cellulose (carbohydrate polymer)

66
Q

_____ do not fossilize

A

molecules

67
Q

______ is a lithological unit in a volcano-sedimentary formation.

A

apex chart

68
Q

Earliest bacteria and cyanobacteria debris

A

Early Archean of western Australia (Pilbara Craton).

69
Q

what did the apex chart show

A

folded filament with cell like structures made of carbon.

70
Q

stromatolites

A

are organo-sedimentary structures of various shapes

71
Q

Growth surface (stromatolites)

A

thin layer of oxygen-producing photosynthetic cyanobacteria and aerobic bacteria.

72
Q

undermat (stromatolites)

A

thin bacterial layer of non-oxygen-producing photosynthetic bacteria
- are anaerobic, still can use oxygen-when available

73
Q

oxygen depleted zone (stromatolites)

A

thicker layer bacteria. populated by anaerobic

74
Q

stromatolite mass (stromatolite)

A

includes most of the stromatolite and consists of calcium carbonate;
- there are no living bacteria and cyanobacteria in this portion of the stromatolite.

75
Q

Banded Iron Formation (BIF)

A

The rock record around 2.2-1.9 billion years contains rocks rich in iron oxides and hydroxides;

76
Q

oldest eukaryotes are

A

biomarkers (2.1, 1.8B yrs)

77
Q

where were the first isolated true eukaryote cells discovered

A

cherts of bitter springs formation of central Australia

78
Q

bitter springs formation

A

Some of these were caught in the process of cellular division, and are among the very few cases in which even the nucleus was fossilized. In other the offspring cell unique arrangement during the cellular division indicates clearly that the organisms belong to the eukaryote group

79
Q

cell arrangement of the first eukaryotes suggest

A

meiotic cell division

80
Q

examples of eukaryotes

A

Bangiomorpha
Torridonophycus
melanocyrilium

81
Q

deep sea drilling project

A

investigated the sediments and sedimentary rocks in the deepest parts of the ocean

82
Q

what has the sea drilling project done

A

Observations have been made on the the sea floor morphology.

83
Q

Zones of consumption of oceanic crust are regarded as ______

A

convergent zones

84
Q

what can occur either between plates consisting of oceanic crust or between plates with different constitution (continental vs. oceanic).

A

subduction and consumption

85
Q

subduction is accompanied by …

A

volcanism, crustal movements resulting in sediment folding and faulting, earthquakes, etc.

86
Q

wilson cycle

A

represents the cycle of birth, evolution and close-up of an oceanic basin.

Geology (1 decks)

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