Final Flashcards
1
Q
Zygote
A
fertilization to 2 weeks
2
Q
Embryo
A
2-8weeks
3
Q
fetus
A
9 weeks to birth
4
Q
What is Totipotent?
A
the earliest developing in the nervous system – they can develop into any type of cell in the body
5
Q
What is Multipotent?
A
when cells become more specified
6
Q
How long after conception does the nervous system develop?
A
3 weeks after conception
7
Q
What are the 3 layers in the embryo?
A
Ectoderm (outer)
Mesoderm (middle)
Endoderm (inner)
8
Q
What is a Neural Plate?
A
ectodermal tissue on the dorsal surface of the developing embryo
9
Q
What are two ways in which cells Migrate?
A
Somal Translocation and Glial-Mediated Migration
10
Q
What is Somal Translocation?
A
an extension grows from the cell and the cell body moves into position along it
can be radial or tangential
11
Q
What is Glial-Mediated Migration?
A
a temporary network of radial glial cells develops in the neural tube
only radial migration
12
Q
What does Radial Migration mean?
A
moving out
13
Q
What is Tangential Migration?
A
Moving in
14
Q
What is Aggregation?
A
the process in which neurons align themselves with other developing neurons
15
Q
What is Aggregation aided by? where are they located?
and how do they work?
A
Cell-adhesion molecules (CAMs)
located on the surface of neurons
allows the cells to adhere to one another
16
Q
What are Tropic Molecules?
A
produced by the target cells being sought by axons
17
Q
What is Chemoaffinity Hypothesis?
A
each postsynaptic surface releases a specific chemical label that is uses to attract growing axons to it
18
Q
What are pioneer Growth cones?
A
the first cones to travel along a particular route in the developing nervous system
19
Q
what is Fasciculation?
A
the tendency for axons to grow along paths established by pioneer growth cones
20
Q
What is Synaptogenis?
A
the formation of new synapses, required glial cells (astrocytes)
21
Q
What is Passive Neuron Death ?
A
when a neuron dies because it failed to get nutrition
22
Q
What is Apoptosis ?
A
active neuron death, the neuron commits suicide, genetically programmed
23
Q
What is Necrosis?
A
Passive neuron death, die from malnutrition, a bit dangerous
24
Q
What is Working Memory?
A
maintaining relevant information to keep it accessible for short periods of time
25
What is a critical Period?
when it is absolutely essential for an experience to occur during a particular interval
26
what is a sensitive period?
when the experience has great effect on development at a certain interval, but can still have effects outside of the interval
27
What is Tinnitus?
ringing in the ears
produces major organization of primary auditory system
28
What is neurogenesis?
the growth of new neurons
29
Describe Autism
a complex developmental disorder that appears before the age of 3
reduced ability to interpret the emotions of others
reduced capacity for social interaction and comminication
30
What are Autistic Savants
individuals with autism who display incredible abilities in certain areas
31
What is Williams Syndrome?
is a neurodevelopment disorder
- near-normal language abilities
- normal or superior musical abilities
- very emotionally expressive and socially interactive (hyper sociability)
- mental retardation
- severe visuospatial problems
32
What is a Stroke?
a sudden interruption in blood supply to the brain that result in brain damage
33
What are two things that are caused by Strokes?
Infarct
| Penumbra
34
What is Infarct?
dead brain tissue resulting from stroke
35
What is Penumbra?
"at risk" tissue surrounding the infarct
36
What are 2 major types of Cerebrovascular Disorders?
Cerebral Ischemia
| Cerebral Hemorrhage
37
What is Cerebral Hemorrhage?
when a blood vessel ruptures and blood seeps into surrounding tissue causing damage
38
What is Cerebral Ischemia?
a disruption of blood supply caused by a blockage in a blood vessel
39
What is Thrombosis?
a plug that is formed in a vessel (blood clot, fat, tumour cells etc)
40
What is Embolism?
a plug that forms in a larger vessel that travels to a smaller vessel
41
What is Arteriosclerosis?
narrowing of blood vessels because of fat deposits
42
Describe Ischemia Induced Brain damage?
takes time
does not occur equally in all parts of the brain
mechanisms of damage vary with the brain structure affected
43
What is a concussion?
when the brain slams against the inside of the skull causing damage to the brains circulatory system
44
What is a hematoma?
buildup of clotted blood (bruise) in brain tissue following a concussion
causes pressure on underlying brain tissue
45
What is bacterial brain infection?
when bacteria infect the brain they commonly lead to the formation of cerebral accesses
ie pockets of puss
46
What is a partial seizure?
involves only part of the brain
patient remains alert and can remember the experience
47
What are generalized seizures
involves the entire brain
48
Describe a simple partial seizure?
symptoms are primarily sensory, motor, or both
short lasting (less than a few minutes)
symptoms depend on where in the brain the seizure is
49
Describe Complex Partial Seizures?
patients engage in compulsive, repetitive, simple behaviours and more complex behaviours can appear perfectly normal
usually restricted to the temporal lobes
50
What is a Petit Mal Seizure?
no convulsion
the primary symptom is the mal abscence (disruption of consciousness, cessation of ongoing behaviour vacant look, fluttering eyelids)
51
What is a Grand Mal seizure?
loss of consciousness, loss of equilibrium, violent tonic-clonic convulsion
ie tongue biting, urination, and cyanosis are also common
52
What is Cyanosis?
turning blue from excessive extraction of oxygen from the blood
53
What is Multiple Sclerosis?
a progressive disease that destroys Myelin in the CNS
an autoimmune disorder
54
What is Alzheimer's Disease?
terminal progressive neurodegenerative disease
55
What are the different stages of AD?
Early stages -- decline in memory functions, attention, problems, personality changes
intermediate stages -- confusion irritability, anxiety deterioration of speech
advanced stages -- lose control of bodily functions
56
What are Neurofibrillary Tangles?
tangles of protein in the neural cytoplasm
57
What are Amyloid Plaques?
Clumps of scar tissue made up from dying neurons and beta amyloid proteins
58
What is Parkinson's Disease?
results from death of dopamine secreting cells in the substantial nigra
characterized by
- muscle rigidity
- loss of movement
- resting tremor
- cognitive impairments
59
What is Rasmussen's Encephalitis?
a rare autoimmune, inflammatory disease that typically only affects one side of the brain
60
What is Collateral Sprouting?
axon branches can sprout from nodes of ranvier to connect to adjacent neurons
61
Things that can help parksinon's disease?
1. Blocking Neurodegeneration
2. Promoting Regeneration
3. Neuro-transplantation
62
What is learning?
how experience changes the brain
63
what is memory?
how these changes are stored and reactivated
64
what is amnesia?
loss of memory, usually as result of brain injury
65
What is retrograde amnesia?
cannot remember events prior to brain damage
66
what is anterograde amnesia?
cannot later remember events that occur after brain damage
67
What is Short-term memory?
immediate memory, limited capacity
68
What is Long-Term memory?
memory for past events, unlimited capacity
69
What is consolidation?
the process of converting short-term memories into long-term memories
70
What is Implicit memory?
simple doesn't involve consciousness
- procedural memory
- perceptual memory
71
What is Explicit Memory?
allow for flexibility in using that learned knowledge in different context
semantic memory
episodic memory
72
What is Semantic Memory?
they are explicit memories of factual information
73
What is Episodic Memory?
they are explicit memories for specific events
74
What is Kosakoffs Syndrome?
anterograde amnesia due to alcoholism
75
What is Electroconvulsive Shock (ECS)?
an intense, brief, diffuse, seizure inducing current that is administered to the brain through large electrodes
76
What is Encoding Association?
Inferotemporal to perirhinal
77
What is Retrival?
perirhinal to inferotemporal
78
What are 5 major areas that store memories?
1. medial-temporal cortex
2. amygdala
3. Prefrontal cortex
4. Cerebellum
5. Striatum
79
What does the amygdala do for memory?
fear-conditioning; strengthening of emotional memories
80
What does the Prefrontal cortex do for memory?
temporal sequences episodic memory; working memory
81
What does the cerebellum do for memory?
classical conditioning; habit formation
82
What does the striatum do for memory?
classical conditioning; habit formation
83
What is Hebb's Rule?
if the synapse becomes active repeatedly at the same time that the post-synaptic neuron fires the synapse will become strengthened
84
What is Associated Long-term potentiation?
when a strong stimulus is paired with a weak one, their connections become strengthened
85
Long-Term potentiation requires 2 events. What are they?
activation of pre-synaptic Neuron
depolarization of the post synaptic neuron
86
What does NMDA do?
controls a calcium ion channel which is normally blocked by a magnesium (MG2+) ion
87
What can Sleep deprivation cause?
it can disrupt cognitive functions and has a profound effect on mood (irritability)
one good night sleep can make up for days of deprivation
88
What do we use Electroencephalogram (EEG) for?
attach electrodes to the scalp to measure brain waves while sleeping
89
What are the patterns of brain waves in the wakefulness stage? and when does this occur?
Alpha and Beta
usually occurs when eyes are closed and in relaxed state
90
What are the characteristics of Alpha waves?
regular, medium frequency waves (8-12 Hz)
91
What are the characteristics of beta waves?
irregular and lower amplitude (13-30 Hz)
92
What characterizes stage 1 sleep?
- theta waves (3.5 -7.5 Hz)
- usually transition between sleep and wakefulness
- EOG show rolling eye movement
- if awoken, people often will claim they were thinking
93
What characterizes stage 2 sleep?
mixed frequencies with occasional bursts of 12-14 cps
sleep spindles -- the mechanism that decreases the brains sensitivity to sensory input --found through stages 1-4
K-complexes only found during stage 2 -- can be triggered by noises
94
what characterizes stages 3 and 4 of sleep?
high amplitude delta waves (>3.5 Hz)
deepest stage of sleep -- If awoken, will be groggy and confused
95
What characterizes REM?
the brain is awake but the body is asleep
if awoken during REM the person will be alert and attentive
complete muscle atonia
96
What is Muscle atonia?
prevents us from acting out our dreams
97
What does a typical night's sleep look like?
90 min cycle
4-5 periods of REM sleep
each period is about 30 min long
Refractory period following REM
98
What happens when a person is deprived around 3-4 hours in one night?
increased sleepiness
disturbances displayed on written tests of mood
poor performance on tests vigilance
99
What happens when you are deprived of 2-3 days of sleep?
experience mirco sleeps (naps of 2-3 seconds
updating plans and strategies
innovate, lateral insightful thinking
reference memory
100
What are two consistent effects of sleep deprivation?
process more rapidly into REM as REM deprivation increases
REM-Rebound -- more time spent in REM when deprivation is over
101
What is Melanopsin?
a photochemical in ganglion cells that transmit information from the retina to the rest of the brain
also involved in papillary response
102
Describe Melatonin
melatonin levels follow circadian rhythms controlled by them SCN
synthesized from serotonin in the pineal gland
103
What are the 2 brain areas that are involved in sleep?
posterior hypothalamus and the anterior hypothalamus are related to excessive sleep or inability to sleep
104
How much of the population is affected by insomnia at some point?
25%
105
Describe Sleep Apnea
stop breathing briefly
carbon dioxide in the blood stimulates chemoreceptors that cause the person to wake up gasping for air
106
Define Narcolespy
REM Phenomena speaking into waking hours
Sleep attack: overwhelming urge to sleep mostly during monotonous tasks
wake up feeling rested
generally skip slow wave sleep and go directly to REM
107
What is Hypnagogic Hallucinations?
when a person dreams while lying awake
108
What is REM Sleep behaviour disorder?
when people act out their dreams
usually associated with Parksinson's
109
What are Night Terrors?
Most intesne acceleration of heart rate in all of human experience
occurs in stage 4 not REM
