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1
Q

Zygote

A

fertilization to 2 weeks

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2
Q

Embryo

A

2-8weeks

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3
Q

fetus

A

9 weeks to birth

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4
Q

What is Totipotent?

A

the earliest developing in the nervous system – they can develop into any type of cell in the body

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5
Q

What is Multipotent?

A

when cells become more specified

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6
Q

How long after conception does the nervous system develop?

A

3 weeks after conception

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7
Q

What are the 3 layers in the embryo?

A

Ectoderm (outer)
Mesoderm (middle)
Endoderm (inner)

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8
Q

What is a Neural Plate?

A

ectodermal tissue on the dorsal surface of the developing embryo

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9
Q

What are two ways in which cells Migrate?

A

Somal Translocation and Glial-Mediated Migration

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10
Q

What is Somal Translocation?

A

an extension grows from the cell and the cell body moves into position along it

can be radial or tangential

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11
Q

What is Glial-Mediated Migration?

A

a temporary network of radial glial cells develops in the neural tube

only radial migration

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12
Q

What does Radial Migration mean?

A

moving out

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13
Q

What is Tangential Migration?

A

Moving in

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14
Q

What is Aggregation?

A

the process in which neurons align themselves with other developing neurons

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15
Q

What is Aggregation aided by? where are they located?

and how do they work?

A

Cell-adhesion molecules (CAMs)

located on the surface of neurons

allows the cells to adhere to one another

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16
Q

What are Tropic Molecules?

A

produced by the target cells being sought by axons

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17
Q

What is Chemoaffinity Hypothesis?

A

each postsynaptic surface releases a specific chemical label that is uses to attract growing axons to it

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18
Q

What are pioneer Growth cones?

A

the first cones to travel along a particular route in the developing nervous system

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19
Q

what is Fasciculation?

A

the tendency for axons to grow along paths established by pioneer growth cones

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20
Q

What is Synaptogenis?

A

the formation of new synapses, required glial cells (astrocytes)

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21
Q

What is Passive Neuron Death ?

A

when a neuron dies because it failed to get nutrition

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22
Q

What is Apoptosis ?

A

active neuron death, the neuron commits suicide, genetically programmed

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23
Q

What is Necrosis?

A

Passive neuron death, die from malnutrition, a bit dangerous

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24
Q

What is Working Memory?

A

maintaining relevant information to keep it accessible for short periods of time

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25
Q

What is a critical Period?

A

when it is absolutely essential for an experience to occur during a particular interval

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26
Q

what is a sensitive period?

A

when the experience has great effect on development at a certain interval, but can still have effects outside of the interval

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27
Q

What is Tinnitus?

A

ringing in the ears

produces major organization of primary auditory system

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28
Q

What is neurogenesis?

A

the growth of new neurons

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29
Q

Describe Autism

A

a complex developmental disorder that appears before the age of 3

reduced ability to interpret the emotions of others

reduced capacity for social interaction and comminication

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30
Q

What are Autistic Savants

A

individuals with autism who display incredible abilities in certain areas

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31
Q

What is Williams Syndrome?

A

is a neurodevelopment disorder

  • near-normal language abilities
  • normal or superior musical abilities
  • very emotionally expressive and socially interactive (hyper sociability)
  • mental retardation
  • severe visuospatial problems
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32
Q

What is a Stroke?

A

a sudden interruption in blood supply to the brain that result in brain damage

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33
Q

What are two things that are caused by Strokes?

A

Infarct

Penumbra

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34
Q

What is Infarct?

A

dead brain tissue resulting from stroke

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35
Q

What is Penumbra?

A

“at risk” tissue surrounding the infarct

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36
Q

What are 2 major types of Cerebrovascular Disorders?

A

Cerebral Ischemia

Cerebral Hemorrhage

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37
Q

What is Cerebral Hemorrhage?

A

when a blood vessel ruptures and blood seeps into surrounding tissue causing damage

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38
Q

What is Cerebral Ischemia?

A

a disruption of blood supply caused by a blockage in a blood vessel

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39
Q

What is Thrombosis?

A

a plug that is formed in a vessel (blood clot, fat, tumour cells etc)

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40
Q

What is Embolism?

A

a plug that forms in a larger vessel that travels to a smaller vessel

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41
Q

What is Arteriosclerosis?

A

narrowing of blood vessels because of fat deposits

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42
Q

Describe Ischemia Induced Brain damage?

A

takes time

does not occur equally in all parts of the brain

mechanisms of damage vary with the brain structure affected

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43
Q

What is a concussion?

A

when the brain slams against the inside of the skull causing damage to the brains circulatory system

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44
Q

What is a hematoma?

A

buildup of clotted blood (bruise) in brain tissue following a concussion

causes pressure on underlying brain tissue

45
Q

What is bacterial brain infection?

A

when bacteria infect the brain they commonly lead to the formation of cerebral accesses
ie pockets of puss

46
Q

What is a partial seizure?

A

involves only part of the brain

patient remains alert and can remember the experience

47
Q

What are generalized seizures

A

involves the entire brain

48
Q

Describe a simple partial seizure?

A

symptoms are primarily sensory, motor, or both

short lasting (less than a few minutes)

symptoms depend on where in the brain the seizure is

49
Q

Describe Complex Partial Seizures?

A

patients engage in compulsive, repetitive, simple behaviours and more complex behaviours can appear perfectly normal

usually restricted to the temporal lobes

50
Q

What is a Petit Mal Seizure?

A

no convulsion

the primary symptom is the mal abscence (disruption of consciousness, cessation of ongoing behaviour vacant look, fluttering eyelids)

51
Q

What is a Grand Mal seizure?

A

loss of consciousness, loss of equilibrium, violent tonic-clonic convulsion

ie tongue biting, urination, and cyanosis are also common

52
Q

What is Cyanosis?

A

turning blue from excessive extraction of oxygen from the blood

53
Q

What is Multiple Sclerosis?

A

a progressive disease that destroys Myelin in the CNS

an autoimmune disorder

54
Q

What is Alzheimer’s Disease?

A

terminal progressive neurodegenerative disease

55
Q

What are the different stages of AD?

A

Early stages – decline in memory functions, attention, problems, personality changes

intermediate stages – confusion irritability, anxiety deterioration of speech

advanced stages – lose control of bodily functions

56
Q

What are Neurofibrillary Tangles?

A

tangles of protein in the neural cytoplasm

57
Q

What are Amyloid Plaques?

A

Clumps of scar tissue made up from dying neurons and beta amyloid proteins

58
Q

What is Parkinson’s Disease?

A

results from death of dopamine secreting cells in the substantial nigra

characterized by

  • muscle rigidity
  • loss of movement
  • resting tremor
  • cognitive impairments
59
Q

What is Rasmussen’s Encephalitis?

A

a rare autoimmune, inflammatory disease that typically only affects one side of the brain

60
Q

What is Collateral Sprouting?

A

axon branches can sprout from nodes of ranvier to connect to adjacent neurons

61
Q

Things that can help parksinon’s disease?

A
  1. Blocking Neurodegeneration
  2. Promoting Regeneration
  3. Neuro-transplantation
62
Q

What is learning?

A

how experience changes the brain

63
Q

what is memory?

A

how these changes are stored and reactivated

64
Q

what is amnesia?

A

loss of memory, usually as result of brain injury

65
Q

What is retrograde amnesia?

A

cannot remember events prior to brain damage

66
Q

what is anterograde amnesia?

A

cannot later remember events that occur after brain damage

67
Q

What is Short-term memory?

A

immediate memory, limited capacity

68
Q

What is Long-Term memory?

A

memory for past events, unlimited capacity

69
Q

What is consolidation?

A

the process of converting short-term memories into long-term memories

70
Q

What is Implicit memory?

A

simple doesn’t involve consciousness

  • procedural memory
  • perceptual memory
71
Q

What is Explicit Memory?

A

allow for flexibility in using that learned knowledge in different context

semantic memory
episodic memory

72
Q

What is Semantic Memory?

A

they are explicit memories of factual information

73
Q

What is Episodic Memory?

A

they are explicit memories for specific events

74
Q

What is Kosakoffs Syndrome?

A

anterograde amnesia due to alcoholism

75
Q

What is Electroconvulsive Shock (ECS)?

A

an intense, brief, diffuse, seizure inducing current that is administered to the brain through large electrodes

76
Q

What is Encoding Association?

A

Inferotemporal to perirhinal

77
Q

What is Retrival?

A

perirhinal to inferotemporal

78
Q

What are 5 major areas that store memories?

A
  1. medial-temporal cortex
  2. amygdala
  3. Prefrontal cortex
  4. Cerebellum
  5. Striatum
79
Q

What does the amygdala do for memory?

A

fear-conditioning; strengthening of emotional memories

80
Q

What does the Prefrontal cortex do for memory?

A

temporal sequences episodic memory; working memory

81
Q

What does the cerebellum do for memory?

A

classical conditioning; habit formation

82
Q

What does the striatum do for memory?

A

classical conditioning; habit formation

83
Q

What is Hebb’s Rule?

A

if the synapse becomes active repeatedly at the same time that the post-synaptic neuron fires the synapse will become strengthened

84
Q

What is Associated Long-term potentiation?

A

when a strong stimulus is paired with a weak one, their connections become strengthened

85
Q

Long-Term potentiation requires 2 events. What are they?

A

activation of pre-synaptic Neuron

depolarization of the post synaptic neuron

86
Q

What does NMDA do?

A

controls a calcium ion channel which is normally blocked by a magnesium (MG2+) ion

87
Q

What can Sleep deprivation cause?

A

it can disrupt cognitive functions and has a profound effect on mood (irritability)

one good night sleep can make up for days of deprivation

88
Q

What do we use Electroencephalogram (EEG) for?

A

attach electrodes to the scalp to measure brain waves while sleeping

89
Q

What are the patterns of brain waves in the wakefulness stage? and when does this occur?

A

Alpha and Beta

usually occurs when eyes are closed and in relaxed state

90
Q

What are the characteristics of Alpha waves?

A

regular, medium frequency waves (8-12 Hz)

91
Q

What are the characteristics of beta waves?

A

irregular and lower amplitude (13-30 Hz)

92
Q

What characterizes stage 1 sleep?

A
  • theta waves (3.5 -7.5 Hz)
  • usually transition between sleep and wakefulness
  • EOG show rolling eye movement
  • if awoken, people often will claim they were thinking
93
Q

What characterizes stage 2 sleep?

A

mixed frequencies with occasional bursts of 12-14 cps

sleep spindles – the mechanism that decreases the brains sensitivity to sensory input –found through stages 1-4

K-complexes only found during stage 2 – can be triggered by noises

94
Q

what characterizes stages 3 and 4 of sleep?

A

high amplitude delta waves (>3.5 Hz)

deepest stage of sleep – If awoken, will be groggy and confused

95
Q

What characterizes REM?

A

the brain is awake but the body is asleep

if awoken during REM the person will be alert and attentive

complete muscle atonia

96
Q

What is Muscle atonia?

A

prevents us from acting out our dreams

97
Q

What does a typical night’s sleep look like?

A

90 min cycle

4-5 periods of REM sleep

each period is about 30 min long

Refractory period following REM

98
Q

What happens when a person is deprived around 3-4 hours in one night?

A

increased sleepiness

disturbances displayed on written tests of mood

poor performance on tests vigilance

99
Q

What happens when you are deprived of 2-3 days of sleep?

A

experience mirco sleeps (naps of 2-3 seconds

updating plans and strategies

innovate, lateral insightful thinking

reference memory

100
Q

What are two consistent effects of sleep deprivation?

A

process more rapidly into REM as REM deprivation increases

REM-Rebound – more time spent in REM when deprivation is over

101
Q

What is Melanopsin?

A

a photochemical in ganglion cells that transmit information from the retina to the rest of the brain

also involved in papillary response

102
Q

Describe Melatonin

A

melatonin levels follow circadian rhythms controlled by them SCN

synthesized from serotonin in the pineal gland

103
Q

What are the 2 brain areas that are involved in sleep?

A

posterior hypothalamus and the anterior hypothalamus are related to excessive sleep or inability to sleep

104
Q

How much of the population is affected by insomnia at some point?

A

25%

105
Q

Describe Sleep Apnea

A

stop breathing briefly

carbon dioxide in the blood stimulates chemoreceptors that cause the person to wake up gasping for air

106
Q

Define Narcolespy

A

REM Phenomena speaking into waking hours

Sleep attack: overwhelming urge to sleep mostly during monotonous tasks

wake up feeling rested

generally skip slow wave sleep and go directly to REM

107
Q

What is Hypnagogic Hallucinations?

A

when a person dreams while lying awake

108
Q

What is REM Sleep behaviour disorder?

A

when people act out their dreams

usually associated with Parksinson’s

109
Q

What are Night Terrors?

A

Most intesne acceleration of heart rate in all of human experience

occurs in stage 4 not REM

psych 275 final (1 decks)

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