FINAL 1 Flashcards
Depict the Iroquois peoples of the North East
-A family of similar languages - composed of many nations -All were historically semi-sedentary villagers with maize-based agric -Gradual adoption of maize 1000-1200 AD: pop. growth, villages form -In the midst of Algonquian hunting peoples of S. Ont, S. Que, NY -16th C coalescence into large, palisaded villages - distinct nations -Late 16th C: conflict, migration, formation of powerful confederacies: Wendat, Haudenosaunaee, Neutral -From harmony to rising conflicts -Pattern : one side of Ont. lake (moving closer together for agriculture and defence purpose) vs the other side -a lot of movement in the 16thC (physical and communal) - fluidity and coming together as defined group
Depict 19thCentury: Settler Nations / Territorial States
•Independent settler states: USA (1776), Mexico (1821), Canada
(gradual - imposition of britain authority) – assert exclusive and uniform territorial sovereignty (expansion to Westaward= an attempt to eliminate to colonize and occupy territory in Cali and Oregon, process of establshing (farm land for eg)
-Emobiment of desire to eliminate territorial ambiguity, treaties and confinement of natices to reserves
•19thC conquest of western N. America through violence, treaties and confinement of Natives to reservations/reserves
-Treatees involve = the debate between oral and written, the nomatic having to choose between location but then dispute, giving up territory in exchange of payment and reserve
- Reservations/Reserves: spaces of exception; collective property
- Shrinking reserves; broken promises
- Reservation/Reserve as both prison and indigenous homeland
- The “Indian Problem” - Proposals to privatize reserves and assimilate Natives (reserves seen as provisory thing until an homogenous nation is formed , eg: notably the voluntary assimilation standards - in canadan and us (daw’s act)
-Desire to privatize and assimilate reserves
Depict Fur Trade and Gold Rushes on the Pacific Coast
- Maritime fur trade, 1780s-1820s, brings wealth to NW Coast (seal pelt is in demand in China and this trade is also sometimes accompanied by violence)
- Canadian overland fur traders: Northwest Co, HBC (but territory remains indigenous)
- California gold rush, 1848-49: massive influx ofadventurers, they see indigenous prescence as a nuisance which leads to a lot of violence
- Militias, US army attack indigenous : large and small massacres
- “Apprenticeship” and other forms of slavery and servitude
- “Protecting the settlers” but actually massacare of the natives
- Population of indignous decimated after colonization
- Slavery in Cali on the surface to “protect” indigenous but actually apprenticesship = parents murdered and children enrolled in settler familites
•Fraser Riv gold rush, 1858: destruction of Halkomelem homeland (settler has a really bad effect on nations, settlers looking for gold in the middle of indigenous fishery + when resistance = violence
+envrionemental consequences distrupt landscape and destroying ecology of salmond which they relied on for food + mining then railway
Depict the destruction of Pequots
-Dutch-English rivalry for trade and territory on Connecticut Riv.
- Fur trade and coastal wampum industry –dominated by Pequots
- Mass. and Conn. join with Narragansetts in war on Pequots
- Massacre of Pequots on Mystic Riv., 16 (coming primary from english but justified by biblical
Depict the Spanish Conquest and Colonization
-Northern frontiers of New Spain, conqueres looking for gold, silver and people
•1598: Oñate expedition: soldiers, settlers, Franciscan missionaries. Siege of Acoma (eventually they capture slaves which feet are cut and acoma surrenders)
-Spanish are “welcomed”/not rejected; they come baring gifts, they also appear dangerous so the possible benefit and intimidation lead to welcoming responses but then Spanish become Coercive (stealing food etc)
- 1610: Santa Fe established as colonial stronghold
- Pueblos convert to Christianity (focus on repressing pueblo sexuality) ; Franciscans dominate community life
- encomienda: labour service (purely exploitative in practice)
- Sp enslavement of Apaches etc: regular slave trade (captured and sold, the indigenous also take part in it but only kind of)
-Most of Pueblos remain indigenous but havea church and no indigneous spirituality to be found- Franscicans humiliate parents in front on their children
Depict the European Presence in therms of the Iroquois
- French, English and Dutch settle nearby, but Haudenosaunee and neighbours unconquered
- Europeans arrive for fishing at first- not interested in colonizing but still contact with indigenous- relationship varry but mostly COMMERCIAL - beginning of trade.
- French colonizing: Innue welcoming for economic purpose, Innu hoping for support in conflict. Wendat form alliance with French. Pattern : colonizers included in ecisting power configuration of indigenous power at first.
- Innu and Mikmaq are the only ones to have first contact with Eur.
- Fur trade; depletion of beaver resources; firearms from Dutch (they are advantaged to the 5 nations because they were close to dutch)
- Fur trade mainly with Dutch at Ft. Orange (Albany, NY)
- Smallpox, 1634, 1661-63; depopulation, destabilization (cuts population in half) - war becomes more prevalant.
- Haudenosaunee at the centre of a northern “shatterzone” of violent conflict connected to colonial presence
What is Ayllu
Ayllu: community united in kinship; also an economic unit (sense of unity by bonds, collection of territory connected by human holders)
What is Cuzco
Cuzco: capital city; not as impressive as Aztecs, residence of the Inca, a religious centre surrounded by sacred landscape, the centre of the world, “navel of the universe”, scare centre
•Long before 1492, the majority of Native Americas population subsists by __________ , regardless of the _______ stereotype
-agriculture -hunter gatherer
Define Polytheistic
-Oral Tradition -Interpenetration of the human, the animal and unseen forces -Particularistic stories -More complex views- praying for figures even if “unfriendly”- morality is more complicated
Depict the Mi’kmaq
-importance of the sea shore: shell fish, water fowl, seals -Interior moose, caribou hunt in fall/winter -Alliance with nations to the west: Wabanaki Confederacy
Depict the rise/origin of Maize in central Mexico
-Lake district of central valley of Mexico: rich natural environment -Wild teosinte to domesticated maize (corn) ca. 7000 YBP -Maize is exceptionally productive and nutritious -Genetic mutability: favors selective breeding for new strains
Depict general details on Northern Hunter-Gathering Peoples
-Canadian Shield environment: rivers, lakes, rocks, spruce forest - water is very present on land -Seasonally available foods –> seasonal migrations (frozen in winter so no agric) , land can support people if in small number and mobile -Hunter-gatherers in small, mobile bands: “nomads” (but not random wandering, its a mode of survival) -Loose and flexible organization: affiliation through kinship -Confusing ethnonyms: Mi’kmaq, Innu .. hard to ascertain -Innu: northeastern Quebec, Labrador (aka Montagnais, Naskapi) -Mi’kmaq: Nova Scotia, Gaspé, parts of Nfld -Algonquin: northwestern Quebec -Anishinaabe: Ontario•Ethnic identities and territories can be difficult to delineate
what is the tripe alliance
Tenochtitlán, Texcoco, Tlacopan - Aztecs take over eventually because more powerful than 2 others
Depict the Horticulturalists and Hunters of the Great Plains
Natural grasslands; moist in the east, drier and higherin the west
- The bison (buffalo) as dominant mammal: 30,000,000head?
- Semi-sedentary villagers of the Mississippi & Missouri (edge of where corn can survive) subsantial size village
-Seen as the richest peoples and view the hunters as poor
–Eg. Osage, Pawnee, Mandan
•Nomadic hunting peoples: Pedestrian buffalo hunt (very difficult) (bison provide everything they need; meat, fuel, clothing, housing)
*Horses create a shift from wanting to be agric to hunting*
–Eg. Siksika (Blackfoot), Shoshone, Kio
What is acoma
Acoma pueblo = oldest city on North-America ?
Depict Tunuiit (Dorset Culture)
-Migration from Siberia approx 2000BC (later than all other peoples)
- Tailored clothing; bow and arrow; spear;harpoon
- Shore-based fishing, hunting of sea mammals
- Dug-out houses covered in whale bone andearth
- Few dogs, few boat
-Tunuiit famous for ivory art
Describe the Spanish colonization of Hispaniola
1492 – Columbus forms positive impression of Tainos, Tainos offered them as they arrived, overall friendly approach. The Spanish first report is positive, they see the “Indians” as lovely people, generous, “good servants”, traded with us. Very good and hospitable relation 1493 – Settlement on N. coast of Hispaniola (first accidentally encounters defensive caribs)- Tainos help the Europeans at first but then they get tired of it- they have limits obviously while Spanish think they shouldn’t. 1494 – Cibao goldfields; natives forced to pan for gold. When they resist, they face violent response from the Spanish (x1000 more intense) , they massacre villages which arms, dogs, torture. Meanwhile the Tainos food supply drop, sickness and epidemics spread , exploitation leads to exhaustion. Relations deteriorate: violence, plunder, torture, rape Encomienda – institutionalizing exploitation
Explain the mobile hunter-gatherers across the Americas theories
-Until 10 000 YBP, long distance migrations pursuing game - which explains the distribution of Clovis points -Then extinction of large mammals -In warmer South-America, more reliance of plant foods -As post-glacial waterways stabilize: societies settle -Mammoth extinct 10 000 YBP (not from over-hunt but from climate change) -Landscape also changing as ice age ends -Hunting continues but smaller mammal -Lakes and river stabilize (people find a place for a living, nomadic hunter settling seasonally, short movement, seasonal villages -weapons: spear, atlatl, wildfowl decoys and nets -bows & arrows, canoes arrived much later
Depict Life under the Spanish rule based on Guaman Poma de Ayala account
-Indian can take a Spaniard to court but need for 6 Indians for 1 Spanish voice -Subjugated race = can’t ride horses, can’t hold swords, can’t go to university -Suffering from oppression: trying to capture that In the letters -African Slaves as supervisors in labor, whipping the indigenous -“Paga”- people with power extracting bribes -The Indians suffering, dying in mines -Priest even behave against Indians -Spaniards feeling inspired to boss around any Indian -The letter has a lot about the church (playing a very important role as institution) -The indigenous are the ones building and decorating churches -Guaman Poma is very critical of priests: he likes the ida of religion but finds the application to be flawed. He wants the priest punished by inquisition. He depicts them as arrogant, severe, forgot our lord, social connections only with spaniards, beating children (corporal punishment in common in Europe but not for Incas) , they abuse of the confession structure, priest using labor and exploitation, priest behaving like Inca (many wives + a lot of children)
Depict the Pueblo Peoples of the Rio Grande
Hopi, Zuni, Acoma, Taos, etc. Separate nations;similar culture
- Sedentary villagers; maize cultivation; issue of water (fear of drought, wells, irrigation)
- 134 towns in late 16thC. Adobe brick construction
- Kiva: underground chamber at centre of village
- Katchina cult : not exactly gods but personification of spiritual forces (one for hunting for eg) , embodied by dancers and little wodden carbings/dolls (educational and recreational purposes)-
- Athapaskan neighbours (Dine peoples, related to the ones in Canada which they were seperated from) : proto-Navajo and –Apache hunter-gatherer-
intreaction between pueblos and Athapaskan neighbours : trade of fresh meat, violent raids
Depict the fall of tenochitlan
-The Spanish arrives ->The March from the Coast: Tlaxcallan Alliance (after battle, the Spanish realize they should link with them as they are both enemies of the Aztecs, they source most of their army from them), Massacre at Cholula (slaughter everyone, soldiers lashed out) -Tenochtitlán Occupied: Moctezuma captured, Massacre at festiva l -Aztecs expel Spanish/Tlaxcallan occupiers (June-July 1520) -Sp/Tlaxcallan/Texcoco army besieges, destroys Tenochtitlan (Spanish gather a large army of indigenous)
Depict European Notions of Distant Peoples
-Distance peoples = Africa, Asia, Americas -Folklore: wild men and monsters of the mountains and forests (expectation of hairy monster) -Classical tradition: concept of the “barbarian”- people who don’t speak greek- as antithesis of Greek ideals of civility -Ancient Christian concept of “pagan” – those who are too ignorant and depraved to worship God properly (those who resist christianity) -Emergent figure of the “savage” blending elements of barbarian and pagan -Category of “savage” recognizes the humanity of the Other in reduced, degraded form
Depict Aztec Religion
•Sense of vulnerability to cosmic cataclysm •Reading the signs of unseen powers, forces controlling human faith which don’t care about people- which explains the need for big ceremony to get their “attention” •Human life – maize – water – human blood (ceremony of blood dropping for rain and maize) •Huitzilopochtli: Aztec tribal god; associated with war & the sun •Quetzalcoatl: god assoc with wisdom, crafts, culture •Tlaloc: rain god •Importance of shedding blood and of human sacrifice
Explain the migration of maize
-Diffusion south and north from Mesoamerica (enters fully eventually) -Arid US Southwest, ca. 3000 YBP -Southeast and Mississippi Riv system, ca. 200 AD (Mississippi allows diffusion where there is already people, soil and climate) -New varieties to adapt to new climate zones (eg. Northern Flint, allows maize to move up) -Ont, Que and US Northeast 500 – 1000 AD (very challenging for maize in QC at first , its matter of reliability but fluctuation in climate made it possible) -Transforms society, population, power
Depict the Innu of the Lower Saint-Lawrence
-Aug/Sept gathering on St Lawrence eel fishing site -Smoked eel for winter provisions -Fishing is labor intensive and lead to massive food supply -Ducks, geese, berries, salmon -Summer = happy time, mating, lots to eat -Winter hunting in the interior: moose, beaver, caribou, etc. People separate, going off in smaller groups. going different directions inland. -Religion: feasts, shamanism, “shaking tent ceremony -Houses: light material because needs to be moved -Clothing/footwear out of animal product
Depict the Algonquians of the Great Lakes
Mobile hunting-gathering peoples
- Game, fish, berries; wild rice in shallow lakes
- Fluid, kin-based bands. Bilineal clans (“doodem”) (so very hard to trace/identify lineage a lot of movement)
- Most (not all) currently identify as Anishinaabe
- French attempt to identify “nations” and territories, for
example:
–Ottawa/Outaouais – people who come via Ottawa Riv to trade
–Saulteurs/Saulteaux – gather in summer at Sault Ste Marie
•Other ethnonyms: Miami, Potawatomi, Menominee, Illinois
Illinois = federation of different group ath the edge of great lakes/prairires, sucess from bisson hunt
Depict the theory of Cultural Evolution
-J-F. Lafitau (Jesuit), Customs of the American Indians (1724). Native culture as a stage similar to ancient Europe -Not race, its a matter of history -Difference inscribed in time -Polarity of “primitive” and “advanced -Propels “equality” - everyone is equal, but some haven’t reached the “peak” stage yet
What is the legend of the Hiawatha and Dekanawida
Dekanawida (person more than human) who travels on stone canoe to come meet the haudenosanee in a time when peace wasn’t present, Hiawatha Onondaga is an important person in grief of his many daughters- killed by enemy magic’s. He wonders away and goes to a lake full of ducks, the ducks take away the water so he picks up shells. That evening he weaves with the shells, not knowing why. Dekanawida is in a village to which Hiawatcha comes to- D meets H- D makes more shell string for H- gives him more as a gift/consolation, H is healed- they form a unity, going together village to village- healing grief, they create peace as an active entity, which forms the 5 nations.
What is the Haida creation story
-The raven saw human beings stuck inside a clam shell
Depict Haudenosaunee/Iroquois: People of the Longhouse
-Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca -Semi-sedentary villagers; culture similar to Wendat -The Legend of Hiawatha and Dekanawida -League of the Five Nations/Iroquois Confederacy -A loose alliance in the 16th C. that becomes more tightly knit in the 17th C -Haudenasaunee = “they build a long house”- name of confederacy of 5 nations
Depict the protest of Guaman Poma de Ayala
- a native interpreter and traveler commenting on life before and after the conquest of the Andes -Guaman Poma de Ayala: he was a small child when conquest , he came from nobility, during conquest parents killed , he becomes a translator for a living, he converts to Christianity , from his perspective he sees something is not right, when he is an old man, he denies to write letters to the king (which he deems to be a good man simply not aware of the real condition) so he describes the situation. He gets carried away and seeds 1001 pages to the king (who most likely did not read it) -In its letters: he paints an Adam and Eve setting in Peru, taking on board Christianity but through culture
Explain the pre-clovis sites theory
-Pushing back the date of arrival (every advance seems to show early date of arrival) -Sites such as Monte Verde, Chile; a village site 15000 YBP, possibly older -Bluefish caves, Yukon; latest analysis of bones suggests human habitation (horse jaw bone with cut makes 24 000 YBP) -Increasing evidence of movement down pacific coast
Depict the figure of the cannibal
-“Cannibal” as a specific, exaggerated, version of the savage -Columbus and the Caribs: Native enemies as “cannibals” -Eur obsession with eating of human flesh: a sin associated with filth, violence, sexual depravity -Entire peoples dehumanized -Justification for conquest and enslavement -In Eur imagination: associated with disorder, sexual disorder, women
Depict the noble savage
-Savage as innocent: victim of Eur cruelty -Critical stream , Eur= bad christian -Bartolomé de las Casas: Spanish “wolves,” Native “lambs”- revolted conquistador, advocate for humanity, monk (believes in conversion) -Savage as embodiment of generosity, frankness, fortitude, freedom -Savage as genuine, close to nature (no room for modernity or agency) -Modern anti-modernism: the “Indian” as figure from a pristine past -Positive but victime role needing protector, patronizing depiction as passive victimes
Depict Early encounters in terms of ideologies of race and savagery
-Tactical issue for Natives and Eurs: “Are these humans?” (first question of the encounter) -Nahuatl texts: Sp. as “gods,” as “pigs” – short-lived uncertainty (delusion did not last very long and they realized they were dealing with fellow humans) -Cortés: Nahua as “barbarians” – but not “primitive” or “coloured” (sees himself as better but in assumed ways) -Elsewhere, indigenous taken by surprise, but soon see Eur as human, separately created (product of their countries, humanity created differently in varying spaces) + short lived conception of them having “spiritual power” because of objects -Christian theologians debate polygenesis (maybe people were created at different times) vs monogenesis (because of never heard of gods)
Depict the civilization of the Andes
-High mountain environment; deserts to the west, tropical lowlands to the east (micro-climates) -Polity that took shape “recently” before Spanish came -Terraced fields -Agriculture + raising of animals (which promotes agriculture because herds are pooping together) -Potatoes, as well as cotton, maize and other food crops -Domesticated camelids: alpaca (better wool than llama), llama -Textiles: camelid wool and cotton; “backstrap loom” -Many cultures and languages ( no Inca culture, rather Inca “empire”) -Incas speak Quecuha languages (effort to impose Quechua on “colonized” groups leading to bilingualism
Depict the emergence of state societies in Mesoamerica
-Sedentary villages (due to maize) to chiefdoms(venerated individuals, ambitious building, projects): eg. Olmecs, 1200-400 BC- eg: Very large Olmecs heads as cooperative efforts -Cities and state societies, 400 BC – 200 AD: eg. Monte Alban (Oaxaca), Zapotec state *citites are bigger and different from villages, cities don’t cultivate, they depend for food on villages which they “dominate” -“Classic” Maya civilization, 200-900 AD (birth to a lot of city/sate then decline mostly villages) -Teotihuacan, ca 200-700 AD- BIG city, trading, commercial network, then burnt down and destroyed) -Toltec Empire (capital Tula), 950-1150 AD (ancient venerated by Aztecs, wisdom, art, disappeared )
Depict the Wendat way of Life
-Agriculture !!!! -Longhouse, village, fields. Relocating approx. every 20yrs (crop rotation, building deteriorate, lack of fire wood) -Women grow, store and cook food – a duty and source of power -Women at centre of family, clan, longhouse -Men: hunting, politics, war, trade -Men role is in the outside world - they go on long trip for trade or war. Great Prestige for men to go on trips. War= taking prisoners (men are tortured, women prisoner are adopted) -Ethic of tolerance and generosity -War is understood as the duty of one’s kin -The problem of dealing with conflict and violence; blood vengeance: “covering the dead” -If someone kills someone, relatives of the victims must kill him, then the relatives of the dead must kill them and so on which can spiral - so “gifts” are accepted to stop the blood vengeance - hence the ceremony of covering the dead (no basis of punishment like the Europeans)
Depict Horse Cultures
18thC spread of horses, equestrian lifeways
- Huge improvement in buffalo hunt; supports increased population
- Movement of peoples onto the plains (transformation in lifestyle from canoe to horse)
–Cree, Assiniboines, Lakota (Sioux) from northeast
–Commanches from mountain west
–Many agric villagers become equestrian nomads (eg. Crow)
•Increased emphasis on war; competition for horses,pasture, captive
-Lakotas success = extracting food supplies from weaker agric. peoples
Depict Innu technologies of mobility
-Birch-bark canoe – invented ca. 3000 YBP – light, maneuverable -snowshoes, toboggans -Women’s crafts: tanning, tailoring, moose hair embroidery, quillwork, birch-bark container
Depict the city of Tenochtitlán
•An island city: canals, houses, marketplaces, temples, palaces •Two cities in one: Tenochtitlán and Tlatelolco (Both Mexicas but separate, Tlatelolco will be dominated eventually) •Complex urban class society: Nobles, priests, commoners (farmers and artisans), slaves (not a slaved based society, not enemy, only people convicted or paying debt) •Calpolli: neighbourhood/precinct and extended kin unit •Tribute: payments to nobles or temples (for eg: commoner might owe tribute to temple’s land) : token of subjection and a version of tax, if paying=inferior •Tlatoani (sacred “speaker”): Moctezuma II, 1500-1519. Spanish called him king/emperor but not accurate, he is more than human embodiment of spiritual force, political power is unclear, perhaps there was a council behind him - he can’t be look in the eyes
Depict NorthWest Coast Cultures
- Main food resource: fish, esp. salmon caught on river spawning
- Mountain forest and sea = veryi important, fish is central +Seals and whales for meat and oil
- Villages composed of large timber houses (thanks to red cedar)
- Social hierarchy: nobles, commoners, slaves(war captives)
- Competition for wealth and prestige by war,diplomacy and gifting
-Hierarchical society - more than other nations, status inherited, lots of wealth in envrionement which is at the base of prestige (one way of flaunting wealth is to give it away, eg:feast)
Depict South-America roots and tubers agriculture
*Maize is present but not a staple -Beans and quinoa cultivated on the Pacific Coast, 7000 YBP - Guinea pigs, llamas, muscovy ducks domesticated in Peru -Potatoes in Peru from 5000 YBP (staple crops, many variety) -Cassava (aka manioc, yuca) grows in tropical settings: Brazil (10,000 YBP) and Caribbean. Bountiful in starch, but beware cyanide. Cassava more productive than maize (or anything else really) -Maize spreads across S. Amer, but it rarely serves as food staple: instead used for corn beer and popcorn
Depict the colonist: puritans and others (Algonquian, Southern New England)
-New Netherlands: Dutch on Hudson and Connecticut Rivers
- Mayflower Pilgrims found Plymouth, 1621; robbing food caches (he comes in mostly depopulated areas, impulses of indigneous to include them, peace trials regardless of violent history
- “Great Migration” to Mass Bay, 1630-43
-Puritans= good willed people, aware of the past, they want to be good colonizers
- Settler colonialism: appropriation of indigenous lands
- Sachems negotiate agreements of alliance, territorial accommodation
*territory “buying” is not present as it doesnt make sense in indigenous culture. So the english think they are buying land but they’re not.
-The possibilty of cohabitation but it gets perverted
Depict the old world pathogens colonizing the new-world
-Smallpox hits Tainos 1518; Aztecs 1520; Incas 1527 -Unidentified illnesses, probably measles, influenza, also devastate -Epidemics spread with colonizers: Wendat/Iroquois in 1630s; New England Algonquians, 1610-20…. *seen as a product of God’s cleaning the land before arrival of colonizers* -Took a few years for epidemic to invade- when women and children arrive usually -Uneven spread and timing -Sometimes in advance of European penetration: eg. smallpox pandemic of 1775-82•Death, cultural disruption, despondency, war (fallen upon because weaker when sick) -Leads to collective trauma *some diseases are vaguely defined
Depict the conquest and colonization of American plains
-Invasions of US settler state, 1850s-60s – led by army
- Invasions of Canadian settler state, 1870s-80s (enters later than US, – led by NWMP, wanted to show order)
- Destruction of the buffalo (happened because of horses, competition, railways and non-indegenous hunters (because of industrialization ), settlers sett,e in places like kansas and with their fences, shut out bisons)
- The peoples who were strong and healthy = end up straving, in conflict, diseased
- Sudden inability to defend themselves from settlers pushed into reserved (canadian benefits from that US impact)
•Starvation, disease: confinement to reservations/reserve
Explain the Florentine Codex
-a multi-volume book compiled under direction of Sp. Franciscan, Bernardino de Sahagun, starting in 1547 -Sp trained Nahua scholars interview elders, record their testimony in both Nahuatl and Spanish -Volume 12 recounts the conquest -Recorders and informants have been affected by years of Sp rule and by Christianity. This is not “pure” indigenous testimony -Texts reflect local and ethnic biases: Tlaxcallan views and Tlatleloco testimony hostile to Tenochtitlán and to Moctezuma -Moctezuma portrayed as weak leader – is this scapegoating ? from the people who were not pleased with Moctezuma ?
Define the 5 nations ethnonyms
