Fin Flashcards
It is the scientific study of
interactions of organisms
with their environment.
Ecology
Factors affecting Life’s
Distribution in Earth
Biotic Factors & Abiotic factors
are the
environment’s non-living concept
Abiotic factors
What are the Abiotic factors
- Elevational Gradient
- Latitudinal Gradient
- Precipitation Gradient
- Temperature Gradient
- Sunlight Distribution*
is the living
components of the environment.
Biotic Factors
Factors affecting Biotic
Distribution:
- Dispersal Capability
- Biotic Interactions (e.g., predation,
herbivory, competition)
Types of Dispersion
Uniform dispersion - . . . . .
Random dispersion - . … .. . . . …
Clumped dispersion - … … … ….
Levels of Ecological Study
Organismal Ecology
Community Ecology
Population Ecology
Ecosystem Ecology
is a field of study that investigates species
adaptations and how these adaptations help them to survive in their
environment
Organismal Ecology
studies on the dynamics and factors
affecting populations in a given area
and time.
Population Ecology
is a group of interbreeding
organisms that are member of same
species living in the same area at the
same tim
Population
it is the
changes of population in terms of size
and density at a given time.
Population Dynamics
produce offspring in
series of separate
reproductive events
Iteroparous populations
produce all offspring in
single reproductive event
Semelparous populations
A biological community consists of
the different species within an
area, typically a three-
dimensional space, and the
interactions within and among
these species.
Community Ecology
They are
interested in the processes driving
these interactions and their
consequences
Community ecologists
is an assemblage of
living and non-living elements
within a boundary that forms
functional relationships, maintains
flow of energy and complete the
chemical cycle
Ecosystem
examines large-scale ecological
issues, ones that often are framed
in terms not of species but rather of
measures such as biomass, energy
flow, and nutrient cycling
Ecosystem Ecology
Components of Ecosystem
Heterotrophs
Autotrophs
Heterotrophic
Autotrophic
Components of Ecosystem ( according to structure)
Consumers
Producers
Types of consumers
Primary consumer
Secondary consumer
Tertiary consumer and higher level consumer
are herbivores
(plant-eaters) which feed directly and
only on all or part of living plants
Primary consumer
are primary
carnivores (meat-eaters), which feed
only on plant-eating animals
Secondary consumer
include large carnivores or omnivores
(plant- and meat-eaters) that feed on
primary and secondary consumers
and/or producers.
Tertiary and higher-level consumers
Heterotrophs that feed on detritus, or dead organic plant and
animal matter
detritivores.
Two major classes of detritivores
Detritus feeder
Decomposers
ingest fragments of dead organisms
and their cast-off parts and organic wastes
Detritus feeders
absorb and endocytose the soluble
nutrients at the cellular level (e.g. bacteria and fungi)
Decomposers
Properties of Ecosystem
Sustainability
Productivity
Stability
Diversity
Equitability
the amount of energy
formed, or rate of production or organic
matter produced that is expressed in:
number or mass per unit area per unit
period of time (i.e. no./kg./ha./yr.).
Productivity
is the rate at which
radiant energy is stored by photosynthetic
activity of the plants.
Primary productivity
is the
total rate of photosynthesis.
Gross primary productivity (GP)
is the rate of
storage in plant tissue after excess of
energy utilization from respiration.
Net primary productivity (NP)
the ability of an
ecosystem to return to equilibrium
following minor external forces or
disturbances such as increase in
temperature, changes in the rainfall
patterns, and soil and water losses.
Stability
the ability of an
ecosystem to return to equilibrium
following major external forces or
disturbances such as long periods
of drought, acidification of soil, salt
intrusion, typhoons, and pest
infestation.
Sustainability
refers to the number,
kinds and variability of species in
an ecosystem. This that more
species have higher biological
diversity, higher stability and higher
sustainability.
Diversity
refers to the benefits
of ecosystem that is distributed
among its beneficiaries, such that
more member organisms have
access to the available resources
means the higher equitability of the
resources to the organisms.
Equitability
Properties of Ecosystem: Based on the Components of Biodiversity
Genetic Diversity
Species Diversity
Ecosystems Diversity
is the total
number of genetic characteristics in
the genetic makeup of a species.
Genetic Diversity
refers to the
number of species in an area.
Species Diversity
the variety of
different habitats, communities and
ecological processes
Ecosystems Diversity
consists of all the populations
of all the different species that live together in a particular
area.
ecological community
Interactions between different species in a
community
interspecific interactions
Different types of interspecific interactions
competition
predation
parasitism
herbivory
Symbiosis
2 types of symbiotic relationship
commensalism
mutualism
Organisms of two species use the
same limited resource and have a negative impact on
each other.
competition
(+/-):A member of one species, predator,
eats all or part of the body of a member of another
species, prey.
predation
(+/-):A long-term, close association
between two species in which one benefits, and the
other is harmed
parasitism
+/-): A special case of predation in which
the prey species is a plant.
herbivory
two species live together in a
long-term, intimate association. In
layman’s term, a relationship that benefits
both parties it include close, lasting relationships with a
variety of positive or negative effects on
the participants.
Symbiosis
(+/+):A long-term, close
association between two species in which
both partners benefit
mutualism,
(+/0): A long-term, close
association between two species in which
one benefits, and the other is unaffected
commensalism
consist of many
interconnected food chains and are more
realistic representation of consumption
relationships in ecosystems.
Food web/s
Biomes are divided into two which are:
Aquatic and Terrestrial
is a region of the earth’s surface and the
particular combination of climate, plants, and
animals that inhabit it
biome
Abiotic factors that can affect biomes are :
fires,
floods, droughts, strong winds, and elevation
• tundra, boreal forest, temperate rain forest,
temperate deciduous forest, temperate
grassland, chaparral, desert, savanna, and
tropical rain forest
EARTH’S MAJOR BIOMES:
TAIGA
TUNDRA
TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FOREST
TEMPERATE GRASSLAND
CHAPARRAL
SAVANNA
DESERT
RAINFOREST
TROPICAL RAINFOREST
it has harsh, cold winters and extremely short summers
when rain or snow (10 to 25 cm) falls.
• Most soils are usually nutrient poor and have little detritus
• beneath the surface soil lies a layer of permafrost
• low primary productivity and supports relatively few species
recovers slowly from even small disturbances.
❖ Climate change is beginning to affect the arctic tundra.
As the permafrost melts, conifer trees (cone-bearing
evergreens) are replacing tundra vegetation. The trees
have a lower reflectivity than snow, ice, or tundra
vegetation, causing additional warming, an example of a
positive feedback mechanism.
TUNDRA
World’s top source of industrial wood and wood fiber
❖ Extensive logging, gas and oil exploration, mining, and
farming have contributed to loss of boreal forest
Winters in the boreal forest are extremely cold and
severe, although not as harsh as those in the tundra
• receives little precipitation, ~50 cm (20 in) per year
• soil is typically acidic and mineral-poor + a surface
layer of partly decomposed pine and spruce needles
• Dominant plants: Black and white spruces, balsam fir,
eastern larch, and other conifers; deciduous trees
(aspen and birch)
• Animals: caribou, wolves, brown and black bears,
moose, rodents, rabbits, lynx, sable, and mink, insects,
few amphibians and reptiles occur except in the
southern boreal forest
TAIGA
Among the first biomes converted to agricultural
use
❖ During the 20th century, widely adopted intensive
agricultural practices + overgrazing and
deforestation, contributed to the degradation of
some agricultural lands
occurs in temperate areas where annual precipitation
ranges from about 75 cm to 150 cm (30 to 60 in)
• organic material-rich topsoil and a deep, clay-rich
lower layer
• Dominant plants: broadleaved hardwood tress (e.g.,
oak, hickory, beech) & evergreen trees (e.g., magnolia)
• Animals: deer, bears, and many small mammals and
birds
TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FOREST
Characterized by flat, gently sloping or
hilly land
• hot summers, cold winters and uncertain
rainfall
• soil has considerable organic material
Also called prairies and steppes; every
continent has a grassland biome except one –
Antarctica
TEMPERATE GRASSLAND
hilly temperate environments
found in areas around the Mediterranean sea, as well
as North America southwest, southwestern and
southern Australia, central Chile, and southwestern
South Africa
• have mild winters with abundant rainfall combined
with hot, dry summers
• soil is thin and often not very fertile
• Wildfires occur naturally in this environment and are
particularly frequent in late summer and autumn
• Dominant plants: evergreen shrubs - often short,
drought-resistant pine or scrub oak trees that grow 1 to
3 m (3 to 10 ft) tall
CHAPARRAL
soil is low in organic material but is often high in
mineral content, particularly salts
DESERT
tropical grassland with occasional trees
found in areas of low rainfall or intense
seasonal rainfall with prolonged dry periods
• Temperatures vary little throughout the year.
• Precipitation is the overriding climate factor
• soil is somewhat low in essential nutrient
minerals, in part because it is heavily leached
during rainy periods
SAVANNA
Rich wood-producer, supplying lumber and pulpwood.
❖ Overharvesting the original old-growth forest can
devastate that biome: takes hundreds of years to
develop; never has a chance to fully recover once
harvested
TEMPERATE RAINFOREST
Lush, species-rich forest biome found in
Central and South America, Afric
occurs where the climate is warm and moist throughout
the year and precipitation occurs almost daily
• has the highest species richness and variety of all
biomes
• Trees support thick woody vines and extensive
communities of epiphytic plants such as ferns, mosses,
orchids, and bromeliads.
• ~90% of tropical rainforest organisms are adapted to
live in the canopy
• Host various insects, birds, reptiles, and amphibians, as
well as monkeys, sloths, and elephants
TROPICAL RAINFOREST
PHILIPPINE SETTING: 12 FOREST TYPES
Tropical Upper Montane Forest
Tropical Lower Montane Rain Forest
Tropical Lowland Evergreen Forest
Tropiasi Subalpine Forest
Forest over Limestone
Forest over Ultramafic Rocks
Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest
Mangrove Forest
Freshwater Swamp Forest
Peat Swamp Forest
Tropical semi-evergreen rainforest
Types of Circulatory System
Open Circulatory System
Closed Circulatory System
the heart pumps blood through
vessels that are separate from
the interstitial fluid of the body.
Closed Circulatory System
the hemolymph is pumped
through a blood vessel that
empties into the body cavity.
Hemolymph returns to the blood
vessel (ostia).
Open Circulatory System
- it is the containers through which the circulation occurs
Blood Vessels-
- it is the pumping organ of the system
Heart
- it is a transport medium of the circulation
Blood
is the liquid component of blood.
● It is consists of 90% water along with various
substances required for maintaining the
body’s pH, osmotic load, and for protecting
the body, and coagulation factors and
antibodies
Plasma
The plasma component of blood without the
coagulation factors is called the
is similar to interstitial fluid in which the
correct composition of key ions acting as
electrolytes is essential for normal functioning
of muscles and nerves. It contains protein,
antibodies, lipids, nutrients, and hormones, and
external substances (e.g., drugs, viruses,
bacteria
serum.
It is also called as leukocytes (1% of
the blood volume)
• Primarily involved in the immune
response
• Number increases temporarily
whenever the body is fighting an
infection.
• It is also the structure patrolling the
interstitial fluid and lymphatic system.
White Blood Cells
Two General Types of WBC:
Agranulocytes
Granulocytes
(adaptive immune
response)
Agranulocytes
(responds during injury)
Granulocytes
also called thrombocytes, they are
formed from the disintegration of larger
cells called megakaryocytes
serve both structural and molecular
functions in blood clotting
PLATELETS
(also called as Erythrocytes)
● the most numerous blood cells; specialized
cells that circulate through the body, delivering
oxygen to cells; formed from stem cells in the
bone marrow.
RED BLOOD CELLS
The red coloring of blood comes from the
iron-
containing protein hemoglobin.
are the shortest-lived, circulating
for only 120 days on average before being
replaced.
Erythrocytes
a hollow, four-chambered muscular
organ that is specialized for pumping
blood through the vessels of the body
Heart
Three layers of Heart
Endocardium
Myocardium
Epicardium
the outer layer which prevents
excess expansion or movement of the heart
Epicardium
the middle layer onsists of the
heart muscle cells that make up
the middle layer and the bulk of the heart wall
which initiates contractions driving the cardiac
cycle.
Myocardium
the inner layer that lines walls
of the heart
Endocardium
takes the
deoxygenated blood back to the
right atrium where the blood will be
re-oxygenated through the
pulmonary circuit.
Coronary veins
branch from
the aorta and surround the outer
surface of the heart like a crown.
Coronary arteries
One complete sequence of pumping
and filling is referred to as the
cardiac
cycle
and the relaxation
phase is called
diastole.
The contraction phase of the cycle is
called
systole,
are small blood vessels
that carry blood away from the heart/
Arterioles
take blood away from the
heart
Arteries
converge again into
venules that connect to minor veins
that finally connect to major veins
that take blood high in carbon
dioxide back to the heart
capillaries
is an interwoven
network of capillaries that supplies
an organ.
Capillary Bed
are any small
branches of a vein that
receives oxygen depleted
blood from the capillaries
and returns it to the heart
via venous system.
Venules
are blood vessels that
bring blood back to the
heart.
Veins
There are three distinct layers or
tunics that form walls of blood
vessels
- Tunica Externa (outer layer)
- Tunica Media (Middle layer)
- Tunica Intima (Inner layer)
moves blood between
the heart and the lungs. It transports
deoxygenated blood to the lungs to absorb
oxygen and release carbon dioxide. The
oxygenated blood then flows back to the heart.
Pulmonary circulation
moves blood between the
heart and the rest of the body. It sends oxygenated
blood out to cells and returns deoxygenated blood
to the heart.
Systemic circulation
refers to any part of the
systemic circulation in which blood draining from
the capillary bed of one structure flows through a
larger vessel(s) to supply the capillary bed of
another structure before returning to the heart
Portal circulation
is the process of
removing nitrogenous
metabolites and other waster
products.
Excretion
is the
maintenance of constant
osmotic pressure in the fluids of
an organism by the control of
water and salt concentrations
Osmoregulation
is the movement of water
across a selectively permeable
membran
Osmosis
If two solutions have the same osmolarity,
it is said to be
isosmotic.
When two
solutions differ in osmolarity, the one with
the greater concentration of solutes is
said to be ________,and the one
with lesser solutes is said to be_______
hyperosmotic, hypoosmotic.
organisms
that maintain its internal fluid
isoosmotic with its surroundings (only
marine animals).
Osmoconformer
organisms
that expend energy to control
water uptake and loss in a
hyperosmotic or hypoosmotic
environment.
Osmoregulator
Some aquatic invertebrates living in temporary ponds
○ Can lose almost all their body water and survive in a dormant
state
● This adaptation is also (“life without water”).
called
anhydrobiosis
Animals excrete nitrogenous wastes as ______, _______, or
_______ which are the nitrogenous breakdown products of proteins
and nucleic acids.
ammonia, urea, or
uric acid
is nontoxic and largely insoluble in
water (it is even more energetically expensive to
produce). And can be excreted as a semisolid
paste with very little water loss.
Uric acid
Are central to homeostasis because they dispose of metabolic
wastes and control body fluid composition by adjusting the rates
of loss of particular solutes.
○ Regulate solute movement between internal fluids and the
external environment.
Excretory Systems
Is a network of dead-end tubules, lacking
internal openings, connected to external
openings
○ F o u n d i n f l a t w o r m s ( p h y l u m
Platyhelminthes); also found in rotifers,
some annelids, mollusc larvae, and
lancelets
Protonephridia: Flame-Bulb
consist of tubules that
collect coelomic fluid and produce dilute urine
for excretion.
Metanephridia
The organ found in insects and other
terrestrial arthropods that removes
nitrogenous wastes from hemolymph and
also function in osmoregulation.
Malpighian Tubules
is a mixture of blood and
interstitial fluid that is found in insects and
other arthropods as well as most molluscs.
Hemolymph
the excretory organs of vertebrates
● Function in both excretion and
osmoregulation.
●Kidneys,
is the
functional unit of the kidney.
● They are microscopic excretory
tubules found in both regions of
the kidney.
Consist of a single long tubule and a ball of capillaries called the glomerulus (filters
the blood ) which is surrounded by the Bowman’s capsule.
nephron
have
reduced loops of Henle and are almost
entirely confined to the renal cortex.
cortical nephrons,
have well-developed loops
that extend deeply into the renal
medulla.
juxtamedullary
nephrons,
A branch of the renal artery that subdivides into the
capillaries of the glomerulus.
afferent arteriole.
One hormone important in regulating water balance
also called vasopressin, arginine vasopressin (AVP)
or argipressin. It functions to prevent water loss.
It is produced in the hypothalamus of the brain and stored in the
posterior pituitary glan
Antidiuretic Hormone
it is the
progressive changes in size,
shape, and function by which its
genetic potentials are translated
into functioning mature systems.
Development
it is the process by
which an organism replicate
themselves.
Reproduction
The generation of new individuals without the
fusion of egg and sperm.
Asexual reproduction
The formation of offspring by the fusion of
haploid gametes to form a diploid
Sexual reproduction
also called binary fission
occurs in prokaryotic
microorganisms and in some
invertebrate, multicelled
organisms
Fission
occurs commonly in some
invertebrate animals such as Hydra and
corals in which new individuals arise
from outgrowths of existing ones
(parent’s body).
Budding
occurs in many sea stars,
sponges, cnidarians, polychaete annelids,
and tunicate. The breaking of the body into
two parts with subsequent regeneration
(the regrowth of lost body parts).
Fragmentation
occurs in certain species of
bees, wasps, ants, water fleas, rotifers,
aphids, and stick insects. An egg develops
into a complete individual without being
fertilized. The resulting offspring can be
either haploid or diploid.
Parthenogenesis
In which an individual
reverses its sex during its lifetime
sequential hermaphroditism.
reproduces as both a male and a female,
any two individuals can mate
Hermaphroditism
Sexual reproduction starts with the combination
(union) of a sperm and an egg in a process called
fertilization.
individuals clustered in the same area release their
gametes into the water at the same time, a process
known as spawning.
● The release of the reproductive material may be
triggered by water temperature or the length of
daylight.
External Fertilization
occurs most often in land-
based animals
It typically requires sophisticated
reproductive systems, including
copulatory organs that deliver sperm and
receptacles for their storage and transport
to ripe eggs.
Internal fertilization
