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Advanced Higher Biology Unit 1: Cells and Proteins > Field techniques for biologists > Flashcards

Field techniques for biologists Flashcards

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1
Q

Define sampling

A

The gathering of data from part of a population

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2
Q

How is sampling effective

A

If it measures and records data that is representative of the whole population

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3
Q

What is important within sampling

A

It should be carried out in a way that minimises the impact on the species/habitat

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4
Q

What in particular is essential to consider before sampling

A

If it is a rare species or vulnerable habitats

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5
Q

What is a rare species

A

Those that are found at low density or have a small total population

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6
Q

What is a vulnerable habitat

A

Those that are easily damaged by human activities

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7
Q

What is fieldwork

A

Work carried out outside the laboratory/office.

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8
Q

What are the 3 main hazards of fieldwork

A

terrain, weather conditions, isolation

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9
Q

Give examples of a hazardous terrain

A

mountains, cliffs, trees, mud, water, ice

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10
Q

Give examples of a hazardous weather condition

A

cold, wet, windy, electrical storms

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11
Q

Give examples of a hazard associated with isolation

A

medical transport, moving supplies/equipment

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12
Q

Explain a suitable/sufficient risk assessment

A
  • Identifies hazards associated with the trip and travel
  • Evaluates risks (how likely)
  • Evaluates the severity (how harmful)
  • Identifies appropriate control measures to reduce the risk/hazard
  • Records these
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13
Q

List some sampling techniques/types of species

A
  • Point count
  • Transect
  • Remote detection
  • Quadrats
  • Mobile species
  • Elusive species
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14
Q

Define point count

A

Gathering observational data, used for determining species abundance (associated with birds)

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15
Q

Define transect

A

Used for determining changes in a community across an environmental gradient such as a shore, can be in the form of a line which is narrow or a larger band. The higher the variability the wider the band has to be in order for it to be representative.

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16
Q

Define remote detection

A

Monitoring is carried out at a distance using censors like a satellite. Used for things like global vegetation surveys

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17
Q

Define quadrats

A

The sampling area is standardised which reduces bias and increases reliability, used for sessile/slow moving organisms, the diversity influences the number of samples to be taken.

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18
Q

How would you monitor a mobile species

A

May involve capture techniques like nets/traps, used for birds/bats/some insects, allow the animal to be released unharmed

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19
Q

How would you monitor an elusive species

A

Camera trapping to provide direct evidence/scat sampling (counting droppings) to provide indirect evidence.

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20
Q

What is a classification guide

A

A guide which focuses on an order of organisms from one geographical location that provides information that allows us to separate the species through descriptions/key features

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21
Q

What are biological keys

A

A series of questions which focus only on the characteristics that allow species to be separated

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22
Q

Whats a paired statement key

A

A biological key where each option leads to another paired statement or the conclusive identification of a species

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23
Q

Whats a powerful technique to separate species

A

Analysis of DNA/proteins from both organisms

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24
Q

What is taxonomy

A

The organisation of life into a hierarchy of groups of increasingly closely related species

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25
Q

What is a model organism

A

The best known species within a taxonomic group

species that is easiest to keep/study or most useful/harmful

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26
Q

How can a model organism be useful

A

The information given by one can be applied to other species in its taxonomic group that are more difficult to study

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27
Q

What are the major divisions in plants

A

Mosses, liverworts, ferns, conifers and

flowering plants

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28
Q

What are the major phyla in the animal kingdom

A 
Chortada
Antrhopoda
Nematoda
Platyhelminthes
Mollusca
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29
Q

What are some of the more useful model organisms that have recentely been studied

A 
E. coli
Arabidopsis thaliana (flowering plant)
C. elegans (nematode)
Drosophila melanogaster (arthropod)
Mice, rats and zebrafish
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30
Q

What are the 3 domains life has emerged from

A

Archaea
Bacteria
Eukaryota

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31
Q

What is divergent evolution

A

The development of differing life forms from a common origin which results in closely related lifeforms with different phenotypic characteristics

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32
Q

What is a method of monitoring a population

A

Using an indicator species (eg for something like pollution)

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33
Q

What is convergent evolution

A

The separate evolution of phenotypic adaptions in lineages who’s ancestors did not share the same adaptations.

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34
Q

How does convergent evolution occur

A

When very similar selective pressures are acting upon the different lineages

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35
Q

What is useful about indicator species

A

Allows us to identify if environmental conditions in an area meet its niche conditions

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36
Q

How do you measure an environmental condition

A

Monitor an indicator species that is very tolerant or very intolerant to the condition

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37
Q

What are useful indicators when it comes to freshwater sampling

A

Mayflies - indicate unpolluted water, high levels of oxygen

Bloodworms - indicate low levels of oxygen

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38
Q

Name methods of marking

A 
Banding
Tagging
Surgical implantation
Painting
Hair clipping
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39
Q

Describe banding

A

A visible coded metal or plastic loop attached around part of the organism

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40
Q

Describe tagging

A

A visible coded metal or plastic tag inserted into or onto the organism

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41
Q

Describe surgical implantation

A

A microchip inserted into the organism; read by an electronic reader

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42
Q

Describe painting

A

A code painted onto the surface of an organism, such as a shelled mollusc

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43
Q

Describe hair clipping

A

A distinctive area of fur trimmed on a small mammal

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44
Q

What aspect of animal behaviours ensures experiments have a careful design

A

Behaviour is variable

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45
Q

What categories of data is used to quantify animal behaviour

A

Latency
Frequency
Duration

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46
Q

Define latency

A

Interval of time between a stimulus and its response

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47
Q

Define frequency

A

How often a behaviour occurs

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48
Q

Define duration

A

The length of time a behaviour occurs

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49
Q

Define anthropomorphism

A

The attribution of human motivation, characteristics or behaviour to non-human animals

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50
Q

Define an ethogram

A

Describes all the behaviours shown by a species in a wild context, allowing observation and recording of the amount of time spent exhibiting each type of behaviour

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51
Q

How does evolution occur

A

Happens to a population over a number of generations

Individuals show genetic variation as they carry different versions of inherited traits

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52
Q

What is a novel allele

A

If a mutation results in a base sequence which codes for a different amino acid in the polypeptide (a new version of the gene)

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53
Q

What are the three effects of mutations

A

Neutral
Harmful
Beneficial

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54
Q

How does evolution occur

A

Through genetic drift and natural and sexual selection

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55
Q

What is genetic drift

A

The random increase/decrease in frequency of inherited traits over a number of generations

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56
Q

What is the cause of genetic drift and why

A

Neutral mutations as there is no selective pressure

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57
Q

Why is genetic drift more effective on small populations

A

The population is small so alleles are more likely to be lost if there is chance event

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58
Q

What is the meaning of natural selection

A

A non-random process which affects the allele frequency in the population over generations.

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59
Q

How does natural selection work

A

It selects individuals based on their survival chances and thus increases their chances of passing on their inherited traits

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60
Q

Describe the actual process of natural selection

A

Organisms produce more offspring that the environment can support
Individuals with variations that best fit their environment are more likely to survive and breed
Favoured traits are inherited so they are more likely to become more frequent in later generations

61
Q

What is the meaning of sexual selection

A

The non-random increase in the frequency of alleles that make mating and reproduction more likely

62
Q

What is the difference between natural and sexual selection

A

The more popular alleles brought about in sexual selection do not increase survival chances

63
Q

What is absolute fitness

A

The ratio of frequencies of a particular genotype in one generation compared to the previous generation

64
Q

What is relative fitness

A

It compares the absolute fitness of one genotype with the absolute fitness of the most successful genotype

65
Q

List factors that increase the rate of evolution

A 
Higher selection pressures
Shorter generation times
Warmer environments
Sexual reproduction
Horizontal gene transfer
66
Q

Why does higher selection pressures increase evolution rate

A

Higher selection pressures means certain traits (from alleles) are more favoured (and less favoured) so rate of evolution will be more favoured

67
Q

Why does shorter generation times increase evolution rate

A

Evolution occurs over generations, the more generations there are the more chances for selection pressures to operate

68
Q

Why does warmer environments increase evolution rate

A

Most organisms don’t regulate their body temperature, germline cells that produce gametes produce gametes more which means more DNA replication which means more chances for DNA to mutate and new beneficial/disadvantageous alleles to arise

69
Q

Why does sexual reproduction increase evolution rate

A

Combining 2 sets of DNA increases variation shown by offspring, greater variation means more selection which means higher evolution rate

70
Q

Why does horizontal gene transfer increase evolution rate

A

Allows sharing of beneficial DNA sequences between different lineages of bacteria using plasmids. This process is rapid.

71
Q

When does co-evolution occur

A

When two species have frequent, close interactions.

72
Q

Describe the red queen hypothesis

A

States that both species must keep running in order to stay still in evolutionary terms

73
Q

List examples of co-evolution

A

Herbivores and plants
Plants and pollinators
Predators and prey
Parasites and hosts

74
Q

Describe the co-evolution of herbivores and plants

A

Plants have special defences like thorns/toxins which animals have specifically evolved to eat, now they can only eat that type of plant

75
Q

Describe the co-evolution of plants and pollinators

A

An animal evolves to get nectar more efficiently, the evolution of the animal allows plants to transfer pollen more easily

76
Q

Describe the co-evolution of predators and prey

A

Predation is a strong selection pressure, the prey evolves through natural selection to have a better chance of survival, it also produces animals that have a less chance of survival which the predators make use of.

77
Q

Describe the co-evolution of parasites and hosts

A

Hosts evolve to resist and tolerate parasitism, parasites evolve to be better at feeding, reproducing and transmitted to new hosts

78
Q

What is the speed and metabolic cost of asexual reproduction

A

Metabolic costs are lower because it is based on the normal cell cycle and produces many identical offspring
The production of offspring is rapid because the process is simple and every member of the population can reproduce

79
Q

What is the speed and metabolic cost of sexual reproduction

A

Metabolic costs are higher since gametes are made by a special type of cell division and many are infertile
Only females can reproduce so production is slower

80
Q

What are the disadvantages of needing males in a population

A

Only half the offspring can reproduce which reduces efficiency
Combining 2 sets of DNA means only half of each set is passed on which disrupts successful parental genomes

81
Q

What is the benefit of having males in a population

A

Allows for genome to increase in variation so organisms can continue to adapt

82
Q

What types of vegetative cloning has evolved in plants

A

bulbs, corms, tubers, stolons, rhizomes

83
Q

How do fungi and non-flowering plants asexually reproduce

A

Using spores

84
Q

What is parthenogenesis

A

An animal process - can produce offspring asexually without males or fertilisation

85
Q

How does parthenogenesis work

A

Hybridisation between sexual species and they use modified versions of meiosis to produce diploid eggs that develop into female clones

86
Q

Where is parthenogenesis more likely to be found

A

Areas with lower parasitism - cooler climates disadvantageous to parasites and regions of low parasite density/diversity

87
Q

What are conditions that favour asexual reproduction

A

Very narrow and stable niche.

Recolonising disturbed habitats - buttercups getting free ground before other plants colonise it.

88
Q

What is the chromosome diploid number in humans

A

46

89
Q

What is a homologous chromosome

A

A chromosome where each parent chromatid is the same size, has the same centromere position and the same genes in the same loci (location/region)

90
Q

What is the difference between the chromatids in a homologous chromosome

A

The genes are in the same place, but the type of alleles they code for may be different

91
Q

What is fertillisation

A

When the haploid nuclei of two gametes fuse together to form a new diploid nucleus

92
Q

What does the combining of 2 haploid genomes ensure

A

Variation of alleles occurs

93
Q

Describe the cell cycle of a cell undergoing meiosis

A

Interphase stages of a normal cell cycle, chromosomes duplicate in s-phase, the gamete mother cell then divides twice by meiosis (I and II)

94
Q

What are the two mechanisms of meiosis I that ensure variation of genes

A

Crossing over

Independent assortment

95
Q

Describe meiosis I

A

2 homologous chromosomes pair up and become aligned to form a bivalent
Chiasmata (crossovers) form between homologous pairs which allow the crossover of DNA sections
The nuclear membrane breaks down so microtubules can connect from centrosomes to the centromere (spindle fibres are made which align the chromosomes on the equator - independent assortment)
Microtubules shorten and pull chromosomes apart
A nuclear membrane forms and cytokinesis separates the cells

96
Q

Describe meiosis II

A

Nuclear membrane breaks down of both cells
Microtubules align, then separate chromosomes, a nuclear membrane forms and cytokinesis separates the cells
4 genetically different cells have been produced

97
Q

When does meiosis occur in human males

A

Once puberty starts and all haploid cells develop into sperm cells

98
Q

When does meiosis occur in human females

A

After puberty, gamete mother cells at chiasmata stage of meiosis (from birth) divide during each menstrual cycle but only one will reach the chromosome alignment stage of meiosis II before stopping again.
Meiosis I division is asymmetric so the future ovum is larger than the other cell.
The future ovum only completes meiosis II after being penetrated by a sperm cell - the division is asymmetrical and the haploid nucleus of the larger cell fuses with the sperm.

99
Q

What is independent assortment

A

Each pari of homologous chromosomes is positioned randomly with no dependance on the way any other pair is lined up.
It is irrespective of maternal/parental origin.

100
Q

What is crossing over (homologous chromosomes)

A

Where DNA of the chromosomes are exchanged by chiasmata which allows new combinations of alleles - recombination

101
Q

What are linked genes

A

Genes on homologous chromosomes that must be located

102
Q

What is another way of genetic variation that isn’t independent assortment or crossing over

A

Fertilisation - the genetic material of 2 different gametes merges into one.

103
Q

Where do chiasmata form

A

At random positions on the chromosomes

104
Q

What is linkage mapping

A

A way of using the percentage of recombination to map the distance between genes - the further apart 2 genes are, the more likely a chiasmata will form between them and make a new allele

105
Q

Describe the lifecycle of haploid organisms

A

Haploid cells produced by meiosis immediately undergo mitosis to form a haploid organism which produces gametes later by cell differentiation. These gametes take part in fertilisation to produce a diploid organism.

106
Q

What determines the sex of a diploid animal

A

The chromosomes

107
Q

What does diploid mean

A

The organism has 2 full sets of homologous chromosomes

108
Q

What are the names of the sex chromosomes

A

X and Y

109
Q

What are the sex chromosomes present in a female and a male

A 
Female = XX
Male = XY
110
Q

Which process ensures there is a sex chromosome in each gamete

A

Meiosis

111
Q

What is the term given to the female gamete which carries an X chromosome

A

Homogametic

112
Q

What is the term given to the male gamete which can carry an X or a Y chromosome

A

Heterogametic

113
Q

What causes an embryo to develop as a male

A

A single gene on the Y chromosome called SRY

114
Q

How does SRY work

A

Triggers a cascade which activates all male developmental genes in the genome.

115
Q

Why do sex linked patterns of inheritance occur

A

The X chromosome has many genes which do not have homologous alleles on the Y chromosome.

116
Q

Why can males express a trait from a recessive allele

A

There is no allele on the Y chromosome to mask off the recessive allele.

117
Q

How is there only a single working copy of the x chromosome genes in females

A

Most genes on one X chromosome are inactivated during early embryonic development

118
Q

What is dosage compensation

A

A way of ensuring females having the same level of gene products as males and don’t get double the products

119
Q

What is special about the males phenotype

A

It shows the effect of genes that are inherited on the X chromosome.

120
Q

Whats special about a deleterious allele in a females X chromosome

A

It will less likely be affected because X chromosome inactivation is random and half of all cells will have a working copy of the gene

121
Q

List environmental factors that can determine sex

A

Temperature
Size of organism
Competition
Parasitic infection

122
Q

What is parental investment

A

The use of resources by a parent to benefit future or existing offspring

123
Q

What is the benefit of parental investment

A

It can result in increased numbers of offspring and improves chance of survival
Increases evolutionary fitness

124
Q

List examples of parental investment

A

Resources used for gamete production
Resources used to provide a safe place of fertilisation
Resources to protect and nurture offspring

125
Q

Whats the difference between egg production and sperm production

A

There are far more sperm being produced

126
Q

What is the term given to an organism fixed in one place

A

Sessile

127
Q

How do sessile organisms reproduce

A

Asexually to form clonal colonies - self-pollination, synchronised spawning of gametes…

128
Q

What is the difference between internal and external fertilisation

A

Internal:
Gametes are released into reproductive tract in female rather than into environment
Finding a mate increases risk of predation and parasitism
Fewer gametes need to be released as higher chance of success
Less gametes produced as there is less competition

129
Q

What are r-selected organisms

A

Small species that produce many offspring, each of which has a low chance of survival. Suitable in unstable environments (r = rEpRoDuCtIvE)

130
Q

What are k-selected organisms

A

Longer lived organisms subject to intra-specific competition for resources in a stable environment. Large parental investment and less offspring

131
Q

What is polygamy

A

A reproductive strategy where each individual mates with several others eg: lekking

132
Q

What is monogamy

A

A reproductive strategy where each individual shares gametes with only one individual eg: schistosoma

133
Q

What does an increase in sexual selection lead to

A

Increase in evolutionary fitness

134
Q

What is sexual dimorphism

A

Elaborate and intricate courtship displays

135
Q

What does a sign stimulus lead to referring to ritualised courtship behaviours

A

Fixed action pattern response which is instinctive

136
Q

What is mating choice influenced by

A

Imprinting early in life

137
Q

What is imprinting

A

An irreversible developmental process that occurs during a critical time period in young animals

138
Q

How does imprinting increase fitness

A

An attachment is formed with a parent which provides care and increases survival chances

139
Q

How can imprinting influence mating

A

Offspring may select mates that resemble certain parent phenotypes

140
Q

What is sexual dimorphism

A

The differences between characteristics between the two genders of the same species (other than sex organs).

141
Q

What are typical differences referring to sexual dimorphism

A

Size and colour.

Males are usually more conspicuous.

142
Q

What is reversed sexual dimorphism

A

When the female is larger/more brightly coloured (more conspicuous).

143
Q

What does success in male-male rivalry lead to

A

Greater access of males to females

144
Q

What determines success in male-male rivalry

A

Males which are stronger/have greater weaponry which are advantageous to offspring.
Males which act as sneakers which can resemble a female appearance to avoid rivalry altogether.

145
Q

What is female choice

A

When females choose a mate based on the males honest signals - characteristics shown by males ie. good phenotype which indicates good genes and low parasite burden.

146
Q

What is lekking

A

A communal displaying by groups of males which females go to to select a mate.

147
Q

Ho are males successful in lekking

A

Larger dominant males win in aggressive encounters.

Satellite males intercept females at the periphery of the lek area.

148
Q

What is the difference between isogamy and anisogamy

A 
Isogamy = similar sized
Anisogamy = differently sized
149
Q

What is the difference between polygyny and polyandry

A 
Polyandry = 1 female many males
Polygyny = 1 male many females

Advanced Higher Biology Unit 1: Cells and Proteins (2 decks)

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