Feminist Theory of Crime Flashcards
Sex
The biological components, chromosomal, chemical, and anatomical, that are associated with males and females
Gender
A social construct refers to a set of social roles, attitudes, and behaviours that describe people of one sex or the other
Gender roles
A set of behaviours that are considered acceptable, appropriate, and desirable for people based on their sex or gender
Gender socialization
The process by which males and females are informed about gendered norms and roles in a given society
Gender idneitty
A person’s identification, or sense of belonging to a particular sex, biologically, psychologically, and socially
Hegemonic Masculinity
The version of masculinity that is set apart from all others
Considered dominant or ideal within society
Often associated with toughness, bravado, aggression, and violence
Emphasized Feminity
The acceptance of gender inequality
A need to support the interests and desires of men
Often associated with empathy, compassion, passivity, and focused on beauty and physical appearance
The rise of feminist criminology
For much of its history, criminology has focused on men
Empirical studies used male-only samples
Theories constructed to explain why men and boys broke the law
Because males are disproportionately involved in crime
Women’s criminality was seen as tangential to the crime problem
Most early criminologists were male
Ealy analyses of women were sexist
Viewed female criminality as a departure from “natural” female behaviour that is maternal, passive, and gentle
Female lawbreakers had a pathological defect in their biological makeup or within their psyche
Social factors (e.g., inequality) were given little or no importance
The critique of Cesare Lombrosso
Lombrosso: female deviance is biological destiny
Females are “more primitive” than men; female deviants are masculine; female deviants lack maternal qualities
The Critique of Otto Pollak
Pollak: Low rates of female deviance due to underreporting and leniency in prosecution and sentencing
Sought evidence of female criminality at home and work; ignored potential for male criminality
Women as cunning and deceitful
Linkage of sexual “deceitfulness” to general dishonesty
“Chivalry” hypothesis: police and courts deal leniently with women offenders
Research shows this to be a myth
The critique of W.I Thomas
Thomas: female deviance caused by the removal of social sanctions
Therefore, female emancipation should be resisted
Liberation and crime
Significant changes came from the women’s rights movement
Some feminist criminologists believed that if girls were raised like boys and had the same opportunities as boys, their behaviour would be more like that of boys
Would lead to equality in crime
This idea was the basis of Rita Simon’s Women and Crime (1975)
A major byproduct of the women’s rights movement will be a high proportion of women who engage in criminal behaviour
Women’s entrance into the workforce would also increase their probability of white-collar crime
However, the women’s rights movement would not increase violent crime
How has female violence changed
between the 1960s and the 1990s?
Women in the 1990s were less likely to act on their own (i.e., they were more likely to commit violence with a partner)
Women in the 1990s were more likely to use guns
Women in the 1990s were more likely to be motivated by a need for money and/or drugs
Women in the 1990s were more likely to report that they had a family member who had been incarcerated
Female offenders in the 1990s were less likely to have been arrested before 21
Alder: Sisters in Crime (1976)
Supported the liberation thesis
As women were demanding equal opportunity in legitimate endeavours, they were also forcing themselves into the world of crime
Women were committing more crimes and engaging in traditionally mal offences
Between 1960 and 1972, female arrests increased:
168 percent for burglary
277 percent for robbery
280 percent for embezzlement
Over 300 percent for larceny
Impact and Critiques
The liberation thesis work was crucial in bringing gender into criminology
However, there are three main criticisms;
The empirical research does not support its predictions
The increase in female arrests has occurred in traditionally “female” crimes and occurred before the women’s rights movement
Also, the increase may be a result of changes in police practices
Crime is more common among those women who did not achieve gender equality and are trapped in economically marginal positions
True equality may reduce crime
The liberation thesis did not consider the structural roots of the inequality between men and women
Did not address patriarchy
The glass ceiling
The Rise of Feminist Criminology
In the context of the women’s rights movement, feminist criminology emerged
Gender relations become central to understanding human behaviour, including crime
Focus on how gender relations are related to crime
Special emphasis on how crime is related to gender-based inequality
Attempt to change structural relationships in society that result in gender discrimination and oppression
The questions feminist criminology attempts to answer include:
How can female crime be explained?
New theories must be developed or traditional theories revised to take into account gender
How can the gender gap in crime, and changes in the gender gap over time, be explained
Gender is a strong correlate of crime, with males committing more crime than women
However, the gender gap has decreased for certain crimes in recent decades
Gender is the more prominent factor when talking about crime
Women are gonna be charged with sex crimes
Drug-related offences are increasing for women
Property-related crime is also increasing for women
The rise of feminist criminology
The questions feminist criminology attempts to answer include:
What role does gender play in the generation of male crime?
Traditional theories devote little attention to the role of gender in producing crime
How does gender intersect with race/ethnicity and class to affect crime?
Intersectionality Theory
Coined by Kimberly Crenshaw speaking to the lived realities of African-American women
A concept to describe the ways in which various aspects of identity interconnect on multiple and often simultaneous levels
- Can form interlocking systems of oppression
Liberal feminism
Focuses on the salience of sex-role socialization and equality of opportunities
More influence early in the feminist criminology movement
Critical or radical approach feminism
Emphasizes the structural inequality in power between men and women
Focuses on the role of patriarchy
Currently directs most theory and research within feminist criminology
Doing time: Inside women’s correctional facilities
Research has focused primarily on men’s institutions
Pains of imprisonment may be much more severe for female offenders
Female offenders adjust to life inside correctional institutions differently than males
Little is known about the inmate social system in Canadian women’s prisons
Chesney-Lind: “A feminist theory of female delinquency”
Existing theories cannot explain female crime
Focuses exclusively on men without taking into account female social experiences
Does not agree with the liberation perspective
Argues girls are frequently the recipients of violence and sexual abuse and can do little to fight back against their abusers
Patriarchy is conducive to such abuse because females are, in general, objectified as sexual property
Girls are easily defined as sexually attractive by older men
In addition, official action of the juvenile justice system is a major force of oppression and reinforces women’s place in society
Parents often insist on their daughter’s arrest
More girls than boys were referred to the juvenile court by their parents than by law enforcement
Escape from abuse is not easy and leads to a pathway to crime for girls
Run away from sexual victimization
Runaways are often returned home by the state
Once on the street, they are forced to commit crimes to survive
Steal money, food, clothing
Prostitution to obtain money
Thus, their survival strategies are criminalized
