Feminism - Non-political idealogies

Question 1

How has the political movement of feminism changed throughout time

Answer 1

Feminism is a viewed as one of the most successful political movements in recent history:

• many commentators argue that the current age of ‘post-feminist era’ - implies that the traditional goals of feminism: anti-discrimination, full equal legal and political rights for women, anti-sexism and equality of opportunity etc have largely been achieved meaning that the past feminist discourse is no longer relevant to the position of women in society
• This means that new questions must be posed by feminists in regard to women and relations between the sexes. It may mean that traditional debates about feminist issues need to be replaced with new ones.

Question 2

What misconceptions has the feminist movement faced throughout history?

Answer 2

Feminist has often been misunderstood, misrepresented and distorted by preconceptions about it.

It has been portrayed as merely an anti-men movement or as quest for female dominance within society.

While, many feminists view a world dominated by female values as superior to one ruled by males, there are some feminists who have sought to create a lesbian counter culture but none of these stereotypes are substantially correct

Question 3

What two related movements are feminist be best described as

Answer 3

• Liberal feminism (movement for reform)
• Radical feminism including socialist feminists (revolutionary nature)

While Liberal feminists share very similar values with each other. Radical feminists have taken a number of varying and divergent forms.

Question 4

Explain the origins of feminism

Answer 4

• Growing female consciousness and opposition to male-dominated values and world have been seen throughout history.

-However, the most well-known and rigorous work on women’s rights was written by English liberal Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97). This was a ‘A vindication of the Rights of Women (1792). In this work she she does not go so far to advocate equality for all women but she does assert their right to be considered useful members of society. She believed that women should become independent from their husbands and develop their minds to the fullest.

• Legal and social position of women e.g. the great liberal JS Mill and his wife Harriet Taylor campaigned for the passage of the Married Women’s Property Act (1882) which allowed women to keep their own property after they married

Question 5

Explain the origins of feminism

Answer 5

• Growing female consciousness and opposition to male-dominated values and world have been seen throughout history.

-However, the most well-known and rigorous work on women’s rights was written by English liberal Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97). This was a ‘A vindication of the Rights of Women (1792). In this work she she does not go so far to advocate equality for all women but she does assert their right to be considered useful members of society. She believed that women should become independent from their husbands and develop their minds to the fullest.

• Legal and social position of women e.g. the great liberal JS Mill and his wife Harriet Taylor campaigned for the passage of the Married Women’s Property Act (1882) which allowed women to keep their own property after they married

Question 6

When did feminism become a serious political and social movement? (America)

Answer 6

Feminism became a serious political and social movement in the middle and second half of the 19th century.

This was because the issue of the inferior position of women was to move to the US in the 19th century.

Charlotte Perkins Gilman (1860-1935) was writing extensively about the lack of opportunities for independent women, arguing that the inferior position of women in the home was a model of their subordinate position in wider life.

In 1890, the National American Women Suffrage Association was founded, followed by the Nationals Women’s Party. By 1920, the Nineteenth Amendment to the US constitution was passed granting equal voting rights to women

Question 7

When did feminism become a serious political and social movement? (UK)

Answer 7

In Britain, the women’s social and political union (WSPU) was formed in 1903. It was founded and run by the Pankhurst family and they, Emmeline in particular, led the suffragette movement and that was ultimately to secure votes for married women over the age of thirty in 1918. Women were also allowed to stand for parliament in that year and equal voting rights with men in 1928.

It was the suffragettes and their American counterparts who were to form the earliest example of well-organised women’s movement. The suffrage movement thus came to be known as first wave feminism (FWF)

Question 8

What two assumed developments would occur followed after the suffrage movement and once women were granted voting rights and being able to stand for elections in representative bodies

Answer 8

• Many women would quickly seek election to office
• In pursuit of women’s votes, parliament would pass legislation to improve the conditions for women in particular to establish equality in all kinds of economic and social fields.

There was little impact at all, save for some improvements in the educational opportunities open to women and the partial opening of the professions to them - no real radical change as women had to leave the job market

Question 9

When did the movement known as second-wave feminism truly start to emerge?

Answer 9

In the 1960s, the movement known as feminism began to emerge. This second period of advancement for women was known as second-wave feminism (SWF)

• The second wave was part of a broader cultural movement spreading at that time, which sought to offer a general critique of post-industrial society - especially identifying the alienation of various social groups from a society of growing mass communication and consumerism
• These groups included disaffected youth, ethnic minorities, the black population (US) and the gay community, the chronically poor and women - disenchanted (felt left behind)

Question 10

STATE the four waves of the feminist movement since 1790

Answer 10

First wave feminism (FWF) 1790s to 1950s: liberal feminism

Second-wave feminism (SWF) 1960s to 1980s: liberal feminism, radical feminism and socialist feminism

Third-wave feminism (TWF) 1990S to 200s: the emergence of post-modern feminism and transfeminism

Fourth-wave feminism 9FWF) early 2000s to date: further development to postmodern feminism, liberal feminism, radical feminism and transfeminism

Question 11

state the core ideas and principles of feminism

Answer 11

• HUMAN NATURE: SEX AND GENDER
• PATRIARCHY
• THE PERSONAL IS POLITICAL
• EQUALITY AND DIFFERENCE FEMINISM
• INTERSECTIONALITY

Question 12

state the key feminist thinkers

Answer 12

• Charlotte Perkins Gilman
• Simone de Beauvoir
• Kate Millett
• Sheila Rowbotham
• bell hooks

Question 13

Explain how feminists view human nature in relation to sex and gender

Answer 13

The main issue concerning human nature that feminists address resolves around two key concepts that feminists distinguish between: sex and gender. These are crucial to an understanding of feminist ideas.

Question 14

How do feminists define sex and gender

Answer 14

Sex refers to biological differences between men and women. Humans are assigned their sex at birth: male or female. Biological differences have observable physical attributes such as external and internal anatomy, chromosomes and hormone prevalence. Without feminism there are two main debates concerning sex between difference feminism vs equality feminism and Transfeminism vs transfeminism sceptics

Question 15

Explain the debate between difference feminism and equality feminism in relation to human nature: sex and gender

Answer 15

Difference feminism vs equality feminism:

DFs argue that the biological differences between women and men are important and believe in essentialism. Carol Gilligan that biological differences affected the way men and women think: there are specific male and female characteristics and each sex had a specific ‘nature’. However, most feminists are equality feminists, arguing that ‘women’s nature’ is socially constructed - determined by society, not biology

Question 16

Explain the debate between transfeminism vs transfeminism sceptics in relation to human nature: sex and gender

Answer 16

Transsexual refers to those whose gender identity differs from their biological sex that they were classified with at birth. Until the 1990s, there was very little academic debate within feminism (or anywhere else) about sex, as biological differences seemed to be scientifically undeniable. However, since the turn of the century, this has changed with the rise of transgenderism and the development of TF. TF argues that sex is socially constructed. However, this is a minority viewpoint within global society and within feminism itself, as most feminists argue that sex is a biological fact.

Prominent, radical second-wave feminist Germaine Greer has explicitly stated that transgender women are ‘not women’, while Sheila Jeffrey’s asserted that feminism should only be for ‘womyn-born-womyn’. However, Andrea Dworkin supports the socially constructed definition of sex, arguing that the state should finance sex-change operations for transsexuals. Self-dentification of sex has gone from a tiny niche issue to one of the most prominent issues within feminism. In 2014, Denmark passed legislation to allowed individuals to change their identified sex without court approval

Question 17

Explain how different waves of feminism explain gender roles of men and women in relation to Human nature: sex and gender

Answer 17

Gender is used to explain the ‘gender roles’ of men and women. The majority of feminists argue that gender roles are socially constructed and form gender stereotypes. Simone de Beauvoir argued that biological differences between men and women had been used by a male dominated stat and society as a justification for pre-determining the gender roles of women.

Men, the other and this ‘otherness’ had left women subordinate to men in society. ‘Otherness’ is imposed that they were the ‘first sex’ while women were the ‘second sex’. Charlotte Perkins Gilman (1860-1935) argued that gender roles are socially constructed from a young age, subordinating women to the will of men. Women are socialised into thinking themselves as naturally frail and weaker than men as gentle, sensitive, emotional, tactful and submissive.

Kate Millett (1934-2017) and bell hooks both perceive social construction as beginning in childhood within the family unit, gender roles are therefore neither natural or inevitable

Question 18

Explain first-wave-feminism’s views on human nature in relation to sex and gender

Answer 18

FWF extended classical liberalism’s ideas about human nature and freedom of the individual so that they explicitly included women. These ideas wished for the state to reform society and economy. The two key texts at the heart of FWF are Mary Wollstonecraft’s ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Women’ (1792) and Harriet Taylor Mill’s ‘Enfranchisement of Women’ (1851). Wollstonecraft argued that women were just as rational as men and should receive the same educational opportunities.

Question 19

Explain second-wave-feminism’s views on human nature in relation to sex and gender

Answer 19

The key texts of second wave feminism are Betty Friedan’s ‘The Feminine Mystique’ (1963), Kate Millett’s ‘Sexual Politics’ (1970), Germaine Greer’s ‘The Female Eunuch’ (1970) and Sheila Rowbotham’s ‘Woman’s consciousness, Man’s world (1973). SWF had divergent solutions to women’s problems. Liberal feminists, influenced by Friedan and FWF, argued for the state to reform society and economy allowing female quality within the public sphere of society. Radical feminists, influenced by Millett and Greer, saw the state as part of the problem and wanted radical changes to the public and private spheres of society. Socialist feminists, influenced in part by the ideas of Rowbotham argued that only under a socialist feminist revolution could the inequalities of both capitalism and female oppression can be solved. SWF was united by one idea: that women were being oppressed by men, a concept that became known as patriarchy

Question 20

define public sphere

Answer 20

The public sphere refers to the area in society where relationships are public, specifically life outside the home, particularly society and work.

Question 21

define private sphere

Answer 21

The private sphere refers to the area in society where relationships are seen as private,
specifically home and domestic life.

Question 22

define essentialism

Answer 22

Essentialism refers to the belief that biological factors are significant in the different
character and behaviour of men and women.

Question 23

define gender stereotypes

Answer 23

Gender stereotypes refers to the different way society expects men and women to behave according to gender roles.

Question 24

define discrimination

Answer 24

Discrimination refers to less favourable treatment of one group of people compared to other groups.

Question 25

define equality of opportunity

Answer 25

Equality of opportunity refers to the idea that all humans, irrespective of sex, should have an equal chance in society to rise and fall.

Question 26

define political equality

Answer 26

Political equality refers to the equal right to vote, one person one vote, equal right to protest.

Question 27

define legal equality

Answer 27

Legal equality refers to the idea that the law applies equally to all and that no one is above the law.

Question 28

define reserve army of labour

Answer 28

Reserve army of labour refers to the idea that women constitute a spare workforce that can be called on as / exploited and when needed.

Question 29

define gender equality

Answer 29

Gender equality refers to the idea that society should treat everyone the same, irrespective of their gender.

Question 30

define cultural feminism

Answer 30

Cultural feminism refers to a form of difference feminism that seeks to challenge the dominance of male culture in society, instead seeking to promote ‘women’s
values’

Question 31

define reformist

Answer 31

Reformist refers to seeking to change society gradually and peacefully.

Question 32

define waves of feminism

Answer 32

Waves of feminism refers to the stages that feminism has been described as going through certain time periods or waves where a particular theme has been at the core of the movement, and as one wave has raised the profile of a certain area
feminism confronts other challenges in a fresh wave.

Question 33

define otherness

Answer 33

Otherness refers to the idea that women were considered to be fundamentally different
from men, who were seen as the ‘norm’ and women, deviants from
this norm

Question 34

define equality and difference feminism

Answer 34

Equality and difference feminism is a form of feminism in which feminists o argue that men and women are fundamentally different from one another.

Question 35

define intersectionality

Answer 35

Intersectionality refers to the idea that challenged e notion that ‘gender’ was the singular factor in determining a woman’s fate, arguing that black and working class women’s experiences of patriarchy are different from that of white, middle-class women.

Question 36

Explain the core principle of patriarchy in relation to feminism

Answer 36

Patriarchy is derived from the Greek ‘Patriarchies’, meaning ‘head of the tribe’. Patriarchy refers to a system of social structures and practices in which men dominate women through their authority and power. Feminism uses the term to describe a social system supporting male domination and female subordination.

Millett is credited with the first analysis of patriarchy but most feminist engage with the concept. De Beauvoir argued that for the majority of human history, women have been relegated to a subsidiary status by men.

Question 37

Explain liberal feminism perspective on aspects of patriarchy

Answer 37

Liberal feminism -
LFs believe that patriarchy can be reformed by the state and in western society there are numerous examples: female emancipation; access to education; workplace equality; legalisation of abortion; changes in marriage and divorce law

Question 38

Explain the radical feminist perspective on aspects of the patriarchy

Answer 38

Radical feminism -
RFs focus on patriarchy in both public and private spheres and believe that patriarchy is too pervasive (too influential) to be reformed. Instead, change must be revolutionary, Greer argued that male respect for women is an affectation (conforming to superficial respect) as they have deep-seated loathing of women, which is expressed by the obscenities used to describe women’s sexual organs: ‘women have very little idea how much men hate them’. Barbara Goodwin concludes the sheer number of domestic violence and rape cases should give women some idea of this.

Question 39

Explain the socialist feminist perspective on aspects of the patriarchy

Answer 39

Socialist feminism -
SFs believe that female consciousness is created by men as part of the capitalist machine. Rowbotham adopted a Marxist theory of history that concluded that women have always been oppressed and that a revolution was needed which would destroy both capitalism and patriarchy.

Question 40

Explain the third-wave feminist perspective on aspects of the patriarchy

Answer 40

Third-wave feminism -
TWF expanded on the work of Millett, Sylvia Walby identified six overlapping patriarchal structures that promote discrimination:

The state - underrepresents women in power e.g. lack of women in the HOC in the past or male dominated careers

Household - Society conditions women to believe that their natural role is as mother/homemaker

Violence - one in four women in the UK will suffer domestic violence from men

Paid Work - Women are often underpaid (gender-gap) when they are in the same role as men. Women-centric careers also tend to be linked to gender stereotypes of nurturing, such as nursing or teaching

Sexuality - women are made to feel that their sexual feelings are abnormal, wrong or deviant

Culture - Society reinforces roles of women, from woman being the primary carer through to objectifying how women should look. Feminists would argue that objectified and highly sexualised male fantasy versions of women are found in adverts and virtually all media, pressuring women to look a certain way and often linked to anorexia among young women

Question 41

Explain the postmodern feminism/fourth-wave feminism perspective on aspects of the patriarchy

Answer 41

Postmodern feminism/fourth-wave feminism:

bell hooks (1952) argued that feminist discussions have primarily been from a white middle class perspective. hooks argued women of different ethnicities and socioeconomic classes had been neglected by mainstream feminism. FWF argue that patriarchy is especially misogynistic in the developing world, with female circumcision, forced marriage and sexual violence more prevalent then in the West

Question 42

Explain the core principle of the personal is political in relation to feminism

Answer 42

The personal is political - ‘patriarchy is direct and personal as relationships between men and women are based on power and dominance.

LFs focus on the public sphere of society (such as equal pay and conditions in the workplace), arguing that the private life of women is outside the remit of political analysis. RFs refute this, arguing that ‘the personal is political’ as patriarchy is prevalent in the private sphere of family life.

RFs opened up private life to scrutiny: Gilman berated the misery of women’s private lives and the exploitative nature of domestic roles. Societal pressure forced young girls to conform to motherhood, with gender specific clothes and toys; she argued for gender-neutral clothing and playthings.

Rowbotham argued that marriage was like feudalism with women akin to serts (peasants) paying feudal dues to their husband. De Beauvoir championed contraception as it allowed women control of their bodies and the chance to avoid endless childbearing. Millett believed ‘family’ was a social construct and not a natural arrangement.

Question 43

What were Millett’s main points in relation to patriarchy

Answer 43

Millett’s main points were as follows:

• Patriarchy granted men ownership over their wife and children, entrenching sexism with the idea of male superiority e.g marriage vows - ‘the promise to obey’ their husband
• The family socialised the young into recognising masculine authority and female marginalisation within society (socialised into accepting unequal structures and relationships)
• Marriage saw women lose their identity by taking their husband’s surname

Question 44

How is a feminism a splintered ideology?

Answer 44

Feminism is a splintered ideology with its different branches disagreeing on the exact nature of patriarchy and how best women should achieve parity with men in state, society and economy. However, most aspects of feminism can be housed in two different categories: equality feminism and difference feminism

Question 45

Explain equality feminism

Answer 45

Equality feminism - The majority of feminists, be they LFs, RFs, SFs or PMFs, are equality feminists who believe that biological differences are inconsequential and that gender differences are socially constructed, thus holding that there are no specific feminine traits. De Beauvoir dismissed the idea of innate female characteristics as a myth invented by men to confine women to their oppressed state’. Women and men were essentially the same and De Beauvoir argued the women had been dominated in part of their bodies, ;her ovaries

Question 45

Explain equality feminism

Answer 45

Equality feminism - The majority of feminists, be they LFs, RFs, SFs or PMFs, are equality feminists who believe that biological differences are inconsequential and that gender differences are socially constructed, thus holding that there are no specific feminine traits. De Beauvoir dismissed the idea of innate female characteristics as a myth invented by men to confine women to their oppressed state’. Women and men were essentially the same and De Beauvoir argued the women had been dominated in part of their bodies, ‘her ovaries condemn her to live for ever on her knees’. She argued that contraceptives abortion, rejection of the family and monogamy would allow women to compete with men in society

Question 46

Explain Difference feminism

Answer 46

Difference feminism - A minority of feminists - DFs, disagree with EF believing in essentialism, whereby biological differences are consequential and do determine gender differences. DF can be traced back to FWF who, while believing that women were men’s intellectual equal, also believed in gender-specific characteristics. In the 1980s, DF re-emerged as a rebuttal to EF. Carol Gilligan, a prominent DF stated that sex was one of the most important determinants of human behaviour, positing that women are naturally more nurturing, caring and communal than men. She argued that there has been an assumption that there is a ‘single made of social experience and interpretation’, when in fact men and women experience and interpret the world in different ways and speak with distinct voices.

EF misunderstands these differences, leading to women attempting to replicate/emulate male behaviour while neglecting their own feminine natures.

Question 47

Explain cultural feminism

Answer 47

Cultural feminism is a more extreme version of difference feminism and challenges the dominance of men in society, asserting that women’s values are superior and should be promoted. CFs believe in a distinct ‘female essence’, which is caring and nurturing as opposed to aggressive and competitive men. Critics argue that this is inverted sexism and if patriarchy cannot be defended neither can matriarchy

Question 48

Explain the core principle of intersectionality in relation to feminism (bell hooks)

Answer 48

bell hooks criticised SWF for conceptualising feminism from a white middle class perspective and college-educated background, arguing that both LF and RF largely excluded the concerns of minority groups such as ‘women of colour’. She demonstrated the unexamined complexity of patriarchy facing black women. Black American men wanted racial equality but also to assume their proper place as patriarch in the home’. The black liberation movement was therefore sexist feminist ideology by elitist, white women…. organised and controlled by white women.. black feminists found that sisterhood for most white women did not mean surrendering allegiance to race, class and sexual preference.

hooks’ ideas inspired Kimberle Crenshaw’s theory of intersectionality that challenged the notion that gender is the most important factor in understanding women’s lives. Individuals can be oppressed on multiple overlapping areas such as their gender, class, race, sexuality, disability or transsexuality to name but a few. Multiple identities of women meant that the singular notion of ‘sisterhood’ gives way to a more communal concept of ‘solidarity’ according to hooks. This would allow women with different circumstances and a multiplicity of oppressions to form alliances and would reframe SWF which argues that gender is everythinh

Question 49

State examples of quotes from the ideas of bell hooks and Kimberle Crenshaw that have helped stress the great diversity of women across cultures and the idea of intersectionality.

Answer 49

‘once you do away with the idea of people as fixed static entities, then you see that people can change and there is hope’ - hooks

‘No other group in America has so had their identity socialised out of existence as have black women… when black people are talked about the focus to be on black men; and when women are talked about the focus tends to be on white women’ - hooks

‘cultural patterns of oppression are not only interrelated but are bound together and influenced by intersectional systems of society.’ - Crenshaw

‘some of the worst racist tragedies in history have been perfectly legal’ - Crenshaw

Question 50

Explain the liberal feminism perspective

Answer 50

Liberal feminist is reformist and argues that via democratic pressure, gender stereotypes can be eliminated. Unlike RFs and SFs, LFs do not believe that there needs to be revolutionary change in the way state, society and the economy is organised. LFs focus on the public sphere (society) rather than on the private sphere (family). They are influenced by the liberal values of individualism, foundational equality and equality of opportunity. FWF like Mary Wollstonecraft, in ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Women’ argued for political equality and the right form women to vote. The assumption was that political emancipation would lead to greater gender and legal equality particularly in relation to the economic sphere of property ownership

Question 51

In relation to Liberal Feminism, explain what Friedan’s ground-breaking book ‘The Feminist Mystique’ (1963)

Answer 51

Friedan’s ground-breaking book ‘The Feminist Mystique’ (1963) kick-started SWF. It was based on questionnaires from women with whom she had graduated from college 15 years previously. The open paragraph of the chapter ‘The Problem that Has No Name’ epitomised the dilemma that many women, living domestic lives as wives and mothers felt: ‘The problem lay buried, unspoken for many years in the minds of American Women’. It was a strange stirring, a sense of dissatisfaction. The question each women was grappling with was simple, she suggested - ‘Is this all?’.

Like De Beauvoir, Friedan emphasised the concept of otherness and that women should be free to choose the roles they took, be it in the working world dominated by men’, traditional domestic roles of combination of the two

Question 52

Explain what liberal feminists campaigned for?

Answer 52

• An end to discrimination and inequality in the workplace and a belief in gender equality
• An end to outdated cultural attitudes via education and an opposition to sexist language
• Changes in the law to facilitate legal equality in all public spheres of society

Question 53

State and explain the changes inspired by liberal feminism in the UK

Answer 53

Changes inspired by liberal feminism in the UK:

• The Married Women’s Property Act 1870 - Allowed women to be the legal owner of money and property. Prior to this act, all of a woman assets became her husband’s upon marriage
• First sitting MP 1919 - Nancy Aston became the first woman to sit in the HOC
• Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928 - All women over 21 given the right to vote regardless of property ownership
• Equal Pay Act 1970 - made it illegal to pay women lower rates for the same work
• The Sex Discrimination Act 1975 - made it illegal to discriminate against women in work, education and training
• First female PM 1979 - the election of a female PM
• The Sex Discrimination (Amendment) Act 1986 - prevented discrimination against women in selection, promotion, vocational training and working conditions and made it illegal to dismiss a women on the basis that she had reached state pensionable age where the age was different for men and women

Question 54

Why was liberal feminist criticised by radical feminism, TWF, AND PMF

Answer 54

LF was later criticised by RFs for its reluctance to analyse the private sphere of family life and by TWF/PMF for its white, middle class definition of feminism

Question 55

Explain socialist feminism

Answer 55

SFs argue that economics leads to gender inequality and that capitalism causes patriarchy. However, SFs cannot be described as coherent as there are different branches, reform and revolutionary and each has differing solutions and disagreements

Question 56

What are the two main types of socialist feminism

Answer 56

• Reformist socialist feminism
• Revolutionary socialist feminism

Question 57

Explain reformist socialist feminism in relation to socialist feminism

Answer 57

REFORMIST SOCIALIST FEMINISM -

Gilman was an early advocate of SF viewing collectivism and cooperation as female qualities. She believed that capitalism’s exploitative qualities reinforced patriarchy and that socialism would gradually succeed, allowing women and men to coexist in egalitarian society and the economy. Gilman thought herself as a humanist rather than feminist, wishing parity between the sexes. She anticipated intersectionality in arguing that gender and capitalism were interconnected forms of oppression. She believed that only economic independence could give women freedom and equality with men. Motherhood should not prevent women from working outside the home. She also anticipated the personal is political argument of RF. She championed communal forms of living where child-rearing and housework should be shared and even professionalised, allowing women a wider role in society. These ideas resonated with later feminists

Question 58

Explain revolutionary socialist feminism in relation to socialist feminism

Answer 58

REVOLUTIONARY SOCIALIST FEMINISM -

Engels was the first to argue that economics caused gender equality and capitalism created patriarchy. He argued that capitalism altered pre-existing societal structures which meant that women were needed as unpaid helpers to enable male workers to be employed in the workplace. He claimed that women were complicit both in reproducing the workforce and in socialising their children in their continuing cycle of capitalistic oppression. Women were also a reserve army of labour, to be cast off when no longer needed. Rowbotham’s book ‘Hidden from History’ (1973) expands on Engel’s theories.

Question 59

In relation to revolutionary socialist feminism, how did Rowbotham’s book ‘Hidden from History’ (1973) expand on Engels theories

Answer 59

Rowbotham’s book ‘Hidden from History’ (1973) expanded on Engels theories:

• working class women found unemployment in factories where they were paid less than men, had no childcare provision and were worked ‘like cattle’ both at home and in the workplace
• Rowbotham argued that men do not fully understand the nature of oppression of women; ‘Men will often admit other woman are oppressed but not you’
• Rowbotham adapted Marxist historical materialism arguing that women had always been oppressed and that their alienation from capitalism and patriarchy meant that there needed to be a ‘revolution within a revolution’ to destroy capitalism and patriarchy

Question 60

In relation to revolutionary socialist feminism, how did Rowbotham’s book ‘Hidden from History’ (1973) expand on Engels theories

Answer 60

Rowbotham’s book ‘Hidden from History’ (1973) expanded on Engels theories:

• working class women found unemployment in factories where they were paid less than men, had no childcare provision and were worked ‘like cattle’ both at home and in the workplace
• Rowbotham argued that men do not fully understand the nature of oppression of women; ‘Men will often admit other woman are oppressed but not you’
• Rowbotham adapted Marxist historical materialism arguing that women had always been oppressed and that their alienation from capitalism and patriarchy meant that there needed to be a ‘revolution within a revolution’ to destroy capitalism and patriarchy

Question 61

What did De Beauvoir argue about consumptive materialism in relation to socialist feminism

Answer 61

De Beauvoir argued that the consumptive materialism (the idea that society has become addicted to purchasing consumer goods) inherent within capitalism had weakened women’s position within society. Mitchell has argued that even the destruction of capitalism may not be enough to end patriarchy.

Adding a cultural dynamic to compliment to economic arguments of SF, she argues that there are four social functions that women must liberate themselves from and reframe: 1. Their role in the workforce and production. 2. Their childbearing role. 3. Their socialisation of children and 4. Their societal position as sex objects

Question 62

Explain the radical feminism perspective

Answer 62

LF began the SWF and was quickly joined by RF, the ideas of which rebutted (challenged) liberal thinking. While LFs focus was on the public sphere, RFs argue that both the public and private spheres must be addressed as ‘the personal is political’. RFs have focused on different aspects of the patriarchy and sexism, advocating different solutions. This led Andrew Vincent to describe RF as a ‘jumble of incomprehensible views and intellectual influences’.

Mitchell’s ‘Sexual Politics’ (1970) took a psychoanalytical approach to feminism. She was critical of romantic love and monogamous marriage (as aspects of patriarchy) and argued that children were socialised via the family unit and these norms of behaviour were reinforced by religion, education, myths, art and literature. Mitchell’s solution to ending this false consciousness was abolishing the nuclear family and replacing it with communal living and childrearing. RF lacks ‘cohesion’. RFs focused on different aspects of the patriarchy and offered solutions.

Question 63

State and explain radical feminist examples of and solutions to the problem of patriarchy

Answer 63

Erin Pizzey’s on ‘the personal is the political’ focused on domestic violence in family life -
Her solution: she set up the first women’s refuge in London in 1971, offering women and their children a refuge from domestic violence

Charlotte Bunch argued that heterosexual relationships were based on power and that lesbianism was a political stance - solution: the nuclear family should be abolished and replaced by lesbian communities

Germaine Greer argued that patriarchy had socialised women to view their sexual desires as unfeminine and to be embarrassed about their bodies: being indoctrinated to believe that they must try and retain eternal youth rather than physically and emotionally embrace their age and experience - Solution - she argued for sexual liberation and the abandonment of traditional marriage and the male dominated that this entails. She favoured communal living and childrearing. Her views were similar to Millett’s but from a more heterosexual perspective

Shulamith Firestone (adopting Marx and Engels) saw history as a dialectic struggle relating to biological difference between men and women. Patriarchy has always existed as women have been enslaved by men - Solution: Her prefect society would eliminate gender distinctions and embrace androgyny (the physical characteristics of both sexes). She regarded childbirth as ‘barbaric’ and advocated artificial insemination, arguing that when technology advanced men might be implanted wombs and bear children. Firestone was influenced by De Beauvoir and took her ideas to the next level

Question 64

Explain the post-feminism perspective

Answer 64

Post-feminism perspective

PFS writing in the late 1980s and early 1990s argued that most feminist goals have been achieved and that women should move on. Writers such as Camile Paglia criticised feminism for portraying women as ‘victims’ and argued that women needed to take responsibility for their own life and sexual conduct. However, PF has been criticised for examining feminism solely through a white, middle class framework that ignores the complexity of the female experience that PMF explores.

Question 65

Explain the postmodern feminism perspective

Answer 65

PMF (fourth-wave feminism) rejects as simplistic the broad generalisations inherent in earlier feminist traditions. There are numerous other interacting factors as well as gender, as intersectionality demonstrates. Kira Cochrane argues that intersectionality ‘seems to be emerging as the defining framework of FWF’ as patriarchy continues to adopt and find new ways to oppress women. Jennifer Baungardner and Amy Richards argued in ‘Manifesto’ (2000) that successive generations will need to establish what feminism means to them.

Key themes of PMFs:

• cyber-patriarchy
• genital mutilation
• honour killings
• transfeminism
• rape and sexual assault

PMF is in its fourth-wave incarnation is incredibly varied, ranging from academic studies to proactive and diverse groups of women defending themselves against and raising awareness of patriarchy

Question 66

Explain the theme of cyber-patriarchy in relation to post-modern feminism

Answer 66

Cochrane argues that technology is a source of patriarchy and is intersectional:

• Diane Abbott received more Twitter abuse than any other MP in the 2017 general election campaign. She commented on the intersectional nature of her abuse. ‘It’s highly racialised and its also gendered because people talk about rape and they talk about my physical appearance in a way that they wouldn’t talk about a man. I’m abused as a female politician and as a black politician’
• ‘The great British bake off winner Nadiya Hussain received intersectional discrimination with online abuse that had three overlapping forms of oppression, gender, race (Bangladeshi) and religion (Muslim).
• Natasha Walker argued that females are forced with a hyper-sexualisation from the internet/social media. She stated that femininity is equated with ‘sexiness’ and young girls face a highly sexualised culture - a new form of online patriarchy with pressurises them.
• A wealth of studies show that girls 12-18 face pressure and harassment from boys of the same age to send nude photos (sexting). There have been examples of girls committing suicide after such pictures have been circulated against their will
• In 2012, Feminista campaigned to end cosmetic surgery advertising according to the British Association of Aesthetic Plastic Surgeons, 90% of procedures are carried out on women

Question 67

Explain the theme of genital mutilation in relation to post modern feminism

Answer 67

Genital mutilation - Nimko Ali set up Daughters of Eve in 2012 to prevent genital mutilation. Genital mutilation is intersectional in atleast four aspects: gender, racial, religious and historical

Question 68

Explain the theme of honour killings in relation to post modern feminism

Answer 68

Honour Killings - Approximately 5,000 girls are killed by their families every year and given the secrecy involved, the numbers may be far higher. An intersectional form of patriarchy mostly associated with Islam in India and Pakistan, it also occurs within Sikh, Hindu and Christian families.

Question 69

Explain the theme of transfeminism in relation to post modern feminism

Answer 69

Transfeminism - Transfeminism is an excellent example of intersectional values as it demonstrates how complicated defining sex and gender is

Question 70

Explain the theme of rape and sexual assault in relation to post-modern feminism

Answer 70

Rape and sexual assault: The One Billion Rising Campaign is a mass organisation attempting to end violence against women. The billion refers to the UN statistic that 1 in 3 women on the planet will be raped or beaten in her lifetime, which equates to one billion women. OBR’s key theme is solidarity (an idea of bell hooks) as it recognises that different types of women face different threats. UN research illustrates the intersectional complexity of rape. Characteristics such as sexual orientation, disability, status, ethnicity and country or origin can increase women’s vulnerability to violence. A 2018 Revolt Sexual Assault report found that 70% of university respondents had experienced sexual assault, with only 10% reporting it to the police/university

Question 71

State and explain types of post modern feminism’s successes in the UK

Answer 71

First National Black Conference held in 1984 - an example of PMF and intersectionality

First Black Lesbian Conference held in 1984 - an example of PMF and intersectionality

Prohibition of female circumcision act 1985 and the female genital mutilation 2003 - the 2003 act makes it an offence for UK nationals or permanent Uk residents to carry out FGM abroad or to aid, abet, council or procure the carrying out of FGM, even in countries where the practice is legal

Election of the first black female MP 1987 - Diane Abbot becomes the Uk’s first black female MP

Gender Recognition Act - allows individuals to change their sexual gender

Gender Recognition Amendment Consultation 2017-2018 - if proposals go ahead, it will allow individuals to self-identify their sex (dropped)

Question 72

State examples of areas of agreement within feminism over the concept of patriarchy

Answer 72

• Most feminists are equality feminists and use the term patriarchy to a define a society that is dominated by men and seeks to oppress women
• Gilman and De Beauvoir were among the first to identify gender stereotyping and feminists such as Friedan and Millett explicitly defined patriarchy as a cultural and not a biological phenomenon
• There is agreement among equality feminists that patriarchy is a not a static concept
• The majority of equality feminists agree patriarchy must be opposed in the public sphere of society

Question 73

State examples of areas of disagreement within feminism over the concept of patriarchy

Answer 73

• LF and RF disagree on where to challenge patriarchy. LFs prefer the public sphere of society while RFs argue that patriarchy must be challenged in both public and private sphere
• LFs believe the state, society and the economy can be reformed of patriarchal tendencies while RFs argue there must be a revolutionary change (although there is no consensus on what this change should be)
• PFs argued that most feminists goals have been achieved and that patriarchy has largely been defeated
• PMFs argue that patriarchy is far more complicated than LF, RF or SFs have imagined because of intersectionality

Question 74

State and Explain the main tensions within feminism

Answer 74

As in most political movements there are significant divisions within feminism: it is a political ideology rich in its variety and in its analysis of patriarchy. It is therefore difficult to identify the most important tensions within feminism. However, a few differences can be comprehended:

• RFs reject the LF agenda on the grounds that it fails to understand the true nature of patriarchy. LFs see patriarchy in terms of the historical dominance between of men in society. LFs explain the oppression of women; it is merely a characteristic of society rather than a fundamental explanation of how society works for women. RFs provide a number of explanations of patriarchy, all of which suggest that it lies deep in human consciousness, so deep that there is a need for a dramatic and revolutionary change in such patriarchal consciousness. Therefore, mere legal, political and cultural reform will not make a significant difference

-> LFs counter this by arguing that RFs are imposing their own views on female consciousness which seeks to restrict their freedom of choice. As long as there is a framework of legal and political equality, LFs argue that women should be free to adopt their own aspirations. In particular, RFs criticise LFs on the grounds that they do not recognise that there is a private sphere where women should be free to choose their own status and consciousness. LFs state that RFs are imposing forms of consciousness on women by breaking down the barrier between the public and private sphere

• SFs argue that LFs and RFs have de-emphasised the importance of economic factors in the oppression of women. For them, the inferior, exploited status of women in economic life is the true source of their oppression. Patriarchy has economic origins, they insist and under modern capitalism this has intensified.
• RFs take issue with SFs and particularly Marxists for stressing economic factors excessively. The patriarchal domination of society may have economic elements but the truth is much more complex. Patriarchy is cultural and psychological, not just economic. By over-stressing economics, RFs argue that SFs fail to recognise that there is still a great deal of patriarchy in socialist societies
• There is tension between Difference feminism and Equality feminism. DFs argue that seeking equality is the recognition that male characteristics are superior. The feminism of difference denies male superiority and seeks a different road to liberated consciousness by stressing sex differences and celebrating the superior qualities of women

Question 75

State the key distinctions of liberal feminism

Answer 75

• Liberal feminism is a reform movement
• Patriarchy is a modern phenomenon which can be combatted through legal and cultural reform
• If legal and economic equality can be achieved for women, they will achieve general liberation
• Women should be free to choose how they conduct their lives and their relationships with them

Question 76

State the key distinctions of radical feminism

Answer 76

• Radical feminism is revolutionary, seeking a social and cultural revolution
• Patriarchy has long and deep historical roots. It has penetrated deep into male and female consciousness
• Male and female consciousness must change if liberation is to be achieved
• It is not sufficient to create freedom for women - men’s dominated must be destroyed and their consciousness of superiority revealed

Question 77

State the key distinctions of socialist feminism

Answer 77

• Socialist feminism is often revolutionary but proposes an economic transformation of society towards socialism
• Patriarchy is largely economically based. Men dominate women generally because they dominate them economically
• Patterns of employment and the economic structure of the family have to be transformed to achieve the economic liberation of women
• Women cannot be genuinely free until they achieve economic freedom

Question 78

State Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s view on the key themes of feminism

Answer 78

Gilman:

Human nature: Women are equal to men and biological differences are largely irrelevant

The State: she expresses no explicit views on the role of the state

Society: Women have historically assigned inferior roles in society

Economy: Men dominate the economy because societal norms obligate women to a domestic role

Question 79

State Simone de Beauvoir’s views on the key themes of feminism

Answer 79

De Beauvoir:

Human nature: gender differences are not natural but are the creation of men

The state: The state reinforces a male-dominated culture which limits women’s autonomy and freedom

Society: societal norms restrain both men and women from achieving self-realisation and true freedom of expression

Economy: men dominate economic life which limits the life chances open to women

Question 80

Explain kate millett’s views on key themes of feminism

Answer 80

Kate Millett

Human nature: women are oppressed by men (patriarchy) and should free themselves by engaging in lesbian relationships

The state: the state facilitates patriarchy

Society: society is patriarchal in both public and the private spheres

Economy: Millett’s ideas on the economy resemble socialism but are peripheral to her feminism

Question 81

Explain Sheila Rowbotham’s views on the key themes of feminism

Answer 81

Sheila Rowbotham -

Human nature: Female consciousness is socially constructed by men

The state: the state facilitates capitalism, which in turn oppresses women

Society: capitalist society reinforces the dominance of the establishment males to the detriment of women (and the average male worker)

Economy: Women’s male role in the economy is to provide a reserve army of labour

Question 82

Explain bell hook’s views in relation to the key themes of feminism

Answer 82

bell hooks

Human nature: Women have multiple identities and therefore experience multiple form of oppression

The state: white men dominate the state at the expense of women

The society: society is a multifaceted arrangement between different minority groups. Women who are of lower class and of a racial minority are oppressed on several levels e.g, black working-class women

Economy: women face different levels of oppression. For example, white middle-class college educated women face oppression but are more liberated than black working-class women