Feminism Flashcards
Who are the 5 key thinkers?
Charlotte Perkins Gilman (first wave feminism, sex and domestic economics go hand in hand as women need to depend on their bodies to survive and societal pressure)
Simone de Beauvoir (sex v gender and women as the ‘other’)
Kate Millet (radical feminism, patriarchy in art and literature and the family as a method of oppression)
Sheila Rowbotham (feminism and capitalism, the family as a method of disciplining women in capitalism and male refuge)
bell hooks (intersectionality and the feminism of woc)
What is the difference between sex and gender?
Sex refers to the biological differences between men and women, eg. genitals, chromosomes, hormones = biology and there are biological differences between men and women. Gender refers to appearance, they’re social roles divided into feminine and masculine. These are the different roles that society ascribes to men and women.
How is gender a social construct and what key thinker is this linked to?
Simone de Beauvoir
A woman isn’t born a woman she becomes one. No biological femininity- sex and gender are different, you socially learn femininity. This view comes from what men want women to be- passive objects. Women have intense social expectations to be sexually attractive and conventionally beautiful but it can be rejected. Women are free to make their own choices and reject the male gaze- existential! or they can accept this
What are 4 de Beauvoir quotes and what do they mean?
-‘One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman.’
Gender’s a social construct by the patriarchy. Women aren’t inherently feminine and have the choice to either choose or reject these societal expectations.
-‘Man is defined as ahuman being and woman as a female- whenever she behaves as a human being she is said to imitate the male.’
Women are always second to men- ‘otherness’. Women only exist as a secondary imitation of men, less.
-‘Self knowledge is no guarantee of happiness, but it is on the side of happiness and can supply the courage to fight for it’.
Being aware of your place in society as a woman means you can resist it. Recognising this is a step closer to convincing others that you’re worhty of equality.
-‘Few tasks are more like the torture of Sisyphus…’
Housework is monotonous, meaningless and not progressive.
What is the importance of sex/gender and upbringing?
1) Sexual roles- ‘We are the only animal species in which the female depends on the male for food, the only animal species in which the sex-relation is also an economic relation’- Perkins Gilman (socialist)
An unnatural social construct as women are capable of providing for themselves. We depend on men for security and have to pay for this through sexual favours. Women had no choice but to succumb to this.
2) Upbringing- ‘The most normal girl is the ‘tom-boy’… a healthy young creature’. It goes against women’s human nature to be feminine, we should challenge the gender divide put on us by society.
What’s the difference between sex and gender for liberal feminists?
Friedan accepted the difference between sex but gender differences and superiority are an artificial construct, created by patriarchal societies. There’s no reason why the biological differences between the sexes should be converted into gender differences. If male superiority and patriarchy are passed down from generations, the cycle must be broken by fundamental changes to culture.
What is the essentialism debate?
They argue that biology is essential.
Women should be proud of their differences between the sexes and celebrate them. There’s less of a distinction between sex and gender, eg. Susan Griffin celebrates women’s superior virtue and spirituality. Feminine values like empathy and nurture may be contrasted with masculine values centred upon violence and destruction. They argue women should be leaders which leads to a reorder of the global system and preventing the reckless behaviour of testosterone- fuelled activities which led to the credit crunch, environmental destruction and warfare.
Overall, how far do feminists agree on sex and gender?
To a sizable extent as radical, socialist and liberal feminists largely agree, but essential feminists don’t.
What do liberals and radicals think of sex and gender with thinkers?
Liberals- they don’t want women by restricted by gender stereotypes
Simone de Beauvoire- she was clear that the physical differences between men and women didn’t indicate any deeper distinction between the sexes
Betty Friedan- emphasised the sex/gender as a way to underpin her demand for equal rights, reasoned that biological classifications shouldn’t be used to draw conclusions about the intellectual abilities of women, society needs to accept that all the scientific evidence showed that women were as capable as men, should aim for androgyny (a life unbounded by gender), reject idea that sex means you should be masculine/feminine
Defend the right of women to make traditional choices- a woman’s life isn’t a decision that wider society should seek to influence, can be housewives and mothers
Radical- the false idea of sex and gender being linked has been used by the patriarchy to undermine and marginalise women
Kate Millett- argued that liberal feminists have underestimated the depth of the problem caused by pre-existing prejudices about sex and gender
They see the liberal response to the problems as inadequate, gender stereotypes are at the root of repression of women, advocate a sexual revolution to overthrow the patriarchy
To participate in this, women will need to reject inferior, submissive rolesin their private and public lives, also insistence that men take equal domestic responsibilities so women can build their career outside the home and have the same opportunities
What do socialists and culturals think of sex and gender with thinkers?
Socialist- the sex/gender divide has made life worse for women in the home and workplace
Sex/gender divide is part of a larger system of discrimination caused by patriarchal capitalism- works to advantage of employers who can hire women more cheaply than men for low-status jobs
Women doing childcare and housekeeping means men can only focus on earning wages and put in long hours at work, helps employees
So women faced worse treatment at work and exploited at home (unpaid and under-appreciated)
To Marxist feminists, solution is a rebellion to overthrow capitalism and establish a society with complete equality
More moderate socialist feminists believe that reform of capitalism is enough to eliminate problems caused by the sex/gender divide , advocate equal pay and want women to have a legal entitlement to the same consideration as men for roles where they’re qualified
LR- hope this will see as many women as men in senior roles and win women the same respect in the workplace
Cultural- believe that sex and gender are linked so argue that men and women have different inclinations and seek to honour their contrasting masculine or feminine characteristics (essentialism)
The problem is that the roles performed for society by women are given less importance (not that sex and gender are artificially connected)
To remedy this, they emphasise the value of motherhood and highlight social qualities that give women an advantage, like more socially adept
What is patriarchy?
A system of government which is designed for and run in the interests of men. It refers to systematic, institutionalised and pervasive gender oppression against women.
ALL FEMINISTS BELIEVE THAT SOCIETY, THE STATE AND THE ECONOMY ARE PATRIARCHAL.
Most would agree human nature is too except essentialists.
What is patriarchy in terms of the economy and the state?
Economy:
Household- women have been conditioned to believe that domesticity is destiny and have been discouraged from pursuing careers outside the home. Most women now work but still do most of the housework and childcare.
Paid work- when women were allowed jobs they’d been pushed towards supportive roles like secretaries and nurses. They’re also guided towards subjects focused on children and nurturing. There’s a pay gap. Women were disproportionately affected by Covid-19 than men.
State:
Women have been denied voting access and positions of power. There are fewer female politicians because of anti-family rules and working hours. Sexist cultures have discouraged many women from politics. 20% of people working in the UK’s Parliament have experienced sexual harassment. Print media makes appearance-based comments about female MPs, sexism, threats of sexual violence. Media doesn’t see their views as important, don’t report them, women’s issues aren’t raised. In April 2022, the Daily Mail accused Angela Rayner of distracting PM Boris Johnson by crossing and uncrossing her legs during PMQs, BJ said it’s misogynistic
What is patriarchy in terms of society?
Sexuality- Greer argued that society forces women to deny their sexual desires- ‘unladylike’. Encouraged to repress them which leads to feeling deviant and abnormal. Women are expected to be demure- men are allowed to be promiscuous as it’s ‘natural’
Culture- representation of women in the media reinforce traditional fewer roles which limit women’s life choices. Images of perfect bodies show pervasive influence of society. ‘A culture fixated on female is not an obsession about female beauty; it is an obsession about female obedience’. Naomi Wolf recent stats suggest that 2 women are killed per week in England and Wales by an a current or former partner. 1 in 4 women will experience DV.
What do liberal and socialist (capitalism) feminists think about patriarchy?
Liberal- Patriarchy is centred on denying women equal rights and gender norms which constrain women’s freedom
For 1st wave liberal feminists suffrage was key. They believed that after this they’d become truly equal as elected representatives would take female issues into account. They continue to fight for women’s rights worldwide. However, by the 1960s many 2nd wave feminists realised that there were social expectations holding women back. Friedan- the problem with no name
Socialists- Patriarchy is inherently linked to capitalism but there are many views among socialist feminists.
1) Capitalism relies upon unpaid domestic labour which causes the creation of a wage economy and surplus value. It’s overwhelmingly completed by women.
2) Women forms a ‘reserve army of labour’ whose precarious work means they’re at least well paid and easily fired which suits the interests of the capitalist class.
3) Engels argued that the institution of marriage was created by men to ensure property was passed to their male heirs. Romantic love was a myth, sold to women to keep them in place. Men were free to ignore rules of fidelity.
Early socialist feminists took their arguments from Engels and argued that patriarchy was a consequence of economic relations (part of the superstructure). They argued that once the revolution occurred patriarchy would come to an end. However, more modern socialist feminists, eg. Sheila Rowbotham, argued that capitalism and patriarchy were two separate forms of discrimination (often left-wing men were also misogynists). Women’s liberation requires a ‘revolution within a revolution’.
HOW DO FEMINISTS SEE CHANGE APPROACHING? EVOLUTIONARY OR REVOLUTIONARY?
What are Kate Millett’s views on art and literature and what did she write about in her book?
Often focused on how culture, art and literature often reflected the male gaze and patriarchal attitudes. She was one of the first feminist art critics. Millett argued that male authors often discuss sex with patriarchal assumptions.
Sexual politics- She’s calling out the double standards of sexual relations in society.
‘Aren’t women prudes if they don’t and prostitutes if they do?’
What do radical feminists and third wave feminists think about patriarchy?
Radical- Eg. Millett believed that patriarchy is the most important division in society, as opposed to a lack of freedom (liberal feminists) or capitalism (socialist feminists).
‘It is interesting that many women do not recognise themselves as discriminated against; no better proof could be found of the totality of their conditioning.’
She argued that patriarchy changes and adapts. It perpetuates itself.
‘Patriarchy, reformed or unreformed, is patriarchy still: its worst abuses purged or forsworn, it might actually be more stable and secure than before’. You can overthrow it but it’ll get better at hiding itself and come back.
Third wave- It deconstructed the concept of patriarchy arguing that it affected different women differently. The experiences of white middle-class women are very different from the experiences of BAME and transgender women. Eg. black feminism (1980s onwards) had a different view of the family as the home is a haven from racism of society, but a site of oppression for white feminists. However, hooks argued that the idea that black household were matriarchal was a myth, created by white male social scientists- ‘No matriarchy has ever existed in the United States’
What are the radical perspectives of patriarchy?
Greer- Men hate women so they oppress them. Women have been taught to hate themselves so willingly accept an inferior position assigned to them by men. We have to understand this then throw it off- only once this is done will women become fully human (The Female Eunuch, 1970). She’s a terf (trans-exclusionary radical feminist)
Firestone- In The Dialectic of Sex (1970), she says the history of civilisation is a struggle between men and women (like how Marx saw it as a class struggle). The origins of this is biological differences and limitations which women encountered by being confined to the home. Patriarchy persisted because women, constrained by childbirth and housework, have become enslaved to men. To liberate women, we need reproduction to take place outside the body, remove the stigma that undermines womens’ place in society and use a mechanical womb.
Dworkin- In Women Hating (1974), she campaigned against sexual oppression of women and saw pornography as symptomatic of men’s views of women as little more than sex objects. The only way this could be successfully combated is if women form themselves into lesbian communities. No sex object= liberation
What do different strands say to ‘Feminists agree that patriarchy exists but disagree on where it has the biggest impact on women’?
Socialists- place emphasis on the economy because capitalism means women’s domestic labour is unpaid. They’re easily fired and given low wages to create surplus value, oppresses women at home and in the workplace- 40% of people sacked in HoC are women
Liberals- women’s rights are denied, eg. suffrage so elected representatives can’t make a change to system
Postmodern- it affects different groups of women differently. Eg. black women, lower class
Radical- Patriarchy means women are ignorant of discrimination, it always comes back. Family is the patriarchy’s chief institution.
Overall, how far do feminists agree on patriarchy?
All feminists agree it exists however there’s disagreement over how to overcome it, causes and effects to a sizable extent. All feminists agree the state and society are patriarchal but not human nature.
What is the private sphere?
A person’s domestic life, which liberal feminists consider to be private on the basis that what happens there is the business only of the individuals directly involved in the household. They believe it’s a realm in which neither the state nor wider society should interfere.
It consists of the home and family. Liberal feminists want women to enjoy equality with men in the public sphere through political and legal reform (equal rights), eg. right to vote and to run for political office. They’ve also worked to remove barriers to female progression in the public sphere, eg. laws requiring women to resign upon marriage and have camapigned for equal pay and paid maternity leave. They’re not involved with what happens in the private sphere as women should be able to make their own decisions on how to live in private. Radicals disagree completely as the private sphere is very important- ‘the person is political’ as it impacts their lives in the public sphere (Carol Hanisch). This is because they feel that women who are submissive at home will find it hard to be assertive in the public sphere, doing most of the housework and childcare limits time used to advance their careers while making more free time for men to work. It models a pattern of unequal gender relations to the next generation.
Socialist feminists agree with radicals that repression at home matters- unpaid work props up exploitative capitalist state. Without it, no care for men. But big problem is patriarchal, capitalism in public sphere- want reform.
What is otherness?
In a patriarchal society, women are subject to control by men, who have the upper hand because of their greater economic and political power. Being considered ‘other’ rather than equal members of society, forms a major barrier to women achieving equality with men.
By mid-20th century, women had been granted a lot of political and legal equality with men and equal access to education but it wasn’t transformative as still discrimination and no opportunities open to women. Simone de Beauvoir- men continued to assume they were superior as they’d established how society operated, so all around them was confirmation of their elevated status. Girls were still raised to be mothers and wives. Need to break these moulds to break progress (‘otherness’).
Friedan- patriarchy= entrenched system of male dominance and female oppression. Liberal feminists were troubled by this but also wanted women to have autonomy over their lives, it’s ok to be a housewife but should also be able to fulfill potential in public sphere. They proposed action- cultural attitudes which demeaned women inferior, had to be combated so need education, propaganda and opposition to sexist attitude and language, and political and legal equality needs to be a reality through legislation to protect and extend rights. 1960s- liberal reformist feminism leads to radical feminists thinking they’re not ambitious and wrong
What do radical, socialist and liberal feminists think of the private sphere?
Radicals- Millett believed that patriarchy was found throughout society. However, she argued that it started in the family. In her view ‘the family is patriarchy’s chief institution’. This is because it traps women in domestic work, encourages them to adopt traditional ‘feminine roles’ and recreate the discrimination to the next generation.
Wives are expected to cater to the emotional and sexual needs of their husbands. Women are expected to carry out free domestic labour, even when in paid employment.
Socialists- They’re similar to radical feminists as they reject the public/private distinction and politicise the domestic sphere. Their work tends to be economic and focuses on the unpaid labour completed by women being necessary for the capitalist system to exist. Rowbotham’s analysis is sophisticated- acknowledges the home is a place for men to be oppressive
Liberals- they defend some areas of the private sphere- their belief in individual freedom. For liberals, individuals should be able to make their own choices and are therefore in some way ‘private’. However, even they’d agree there are some elements of the private sphere which need to be politicised (in order to increase freedom). Women’s reproductive rights for instance.
What is rejecting the liberal public/private distinction, political and legal equality and reformist feminism?
Most feminists/liberals distinguish between a public sphere (society) and private sphere (the family). The slogan the ‘person is political’ sought to convey the idea that all relationships between men and women are based on power, not just in the public sphere. Aspects of life considered ‘personal’ (private) were in fact part of a patriarchal system which silenced women.
Political and legal equality- the main demand of early feminists, consisting of an equal right to participate in elections and run for political office and laws that treat men and women the same way.
Reformist feminism- liberal feminists have a reformist approach- they seek to work within existing political structures to achieve change, as opposed to trying to overthrow them
What are relationships based on power and dominance?
Perkins Gilman wrote a semi-autobiographical novel, The Yellow Wallpaper of a women losing her mind whilst locked in her room by her husband after giving birth (opposite from what she needed). She argued that young girls are compelled to conform in society and prepare for motherhood by playing with toys and wearing clothes that are specifically designed by men.
Overall how far do feminists agree on the person is political?
To a sizable extent, most strands agree the personal is political but most people see some distinction.
What is equality feminism?
A branch of feminism with the goal of eradicating legal, political and cultural differences between the sexes so they both have the same status in society and command the same level of respect.
The desire for a society in which men and women have complete parity. Their view is that where inequalities have existed in the past they’ve worked to the advantage of men. Any inequalities that are allowed to remain will continue to give men the upper hand. Most liberal and radical feminists believe in an equal rights society, but differ on how this should be achieved.
What is difference feminism?
It’s based on the belief that there are fundamental differences between men and women. Some argue that women are different but equal, others argue that women are superior to men.
Also called essentialists and eco-feminists.
They argue that men and women are different and this should be accepted. Eg. Susan Griffin argues that society benefits more from nurturing these differences than from encouraging women to behave like men. Most view women as different but equal to men, although a small number think of women as better than men or argue that some of their personal characteristics are superior. Eco-feminist Vandana Shiva has stressed women’s greater connection to nurture as a positive quality- empowering women is now the best way to protect the environment for future generations. A society with women at its helm would provide superior care for its children.
What are the core differences between equality and difference feminists?
Equality feminists believe men and women should be equal. Any inequality works for men. Difference feminists believe women should embrace their biological differences.
The vast majority of feminists are equality feminists.
Very,very few feminists think that women are better than men.
What do the key thinkers think about equality and difference feminism?
Most are equality rather than difference. All key thinkers are equality. They don’t think women are better
de Beauvoir- ‘one is not born a woman’, equality, society creates differences
Millett- men have institutional power over women, this power is socially constructed as opposed to biological or innate
Rowbotham- rejects the radical feminist view that men have no role to play within the quest for female emancipation, women and men should stand together against oppression caused by capitalism, 2 revolutions (capitalism then patriarchy)
hooks- ‘feminism is for everybody’- ‘Most men find it difficult to be patriarchs… disturbed by hatred and fear of women, by male violence against women, even the men who perpetuate this violence,’
Who are cultural feminists and what are womyn’s lands?
A form of difference feminism that seeks to challenge the dominance of male culture in society, instead seeking to promote ‘women’s values’-eg. compassion and non-violence dispute resolution- how women come out the womb. A critique is that they’re accepting patriarchal definitions of femininity. Are they ignoring the experiences of BAME women? (hooks), same argument with class?
Womyn’s Land (separatist)- female-only commune (spelling to avoid ‘men’). Trans women aren’t allowed as they agree with the sex-gender divide. You can’t have equality if there’s men as they’re naturally patriarchal.
What are the views of Mary Daly and Camille Paglia?
Cultural feminists
Daly- believed patriarchal systems are innate around the world, eg. Indian custom of suttee (wives sacrificing their lives on their husband’s funeral pyre) which is done to show devotion and loyalty, child brides as they’re pure and virginal, Chinese foot binding (you can’t walk so become a passive object), female genital mutilation (to ensure women are pure/virgins), witch burning (done out of fear of powerful women)
She believed in essential differences between men and women. Gyn/Ecology- patriarchal oppression of women in various cultures around the world to demonstrate how it’s the universal condition of women and oppression is the natural inclination of men. It ends with a call to women to form a sisterhood. She instructs women to refuse self-sacrifice, to become confident ‘hags’ and ‘crones’, seeking self-actualism.
Paglia- women occupy the middle of the IQ spectrum. We’re strong and stable. Women aren’t smart enough to be geniuses but not stupid enough to be a psychotics. They’re limited by their gender.
Overall how far do feminists agree on equality feminism?
To a substantial degree because most agree but then extremists.
What is the cultural feminism movement?
An attempt to increase the esteem in which ‘feminine’ qualities are held by wider society. It’s based on the essentialist belief that men and women aren’t just biologically different, but also predisposed to different personal qualities. Some see ‘feminine’ qualities as superior to ‘masculine’ ones.
The movement emerged from radical feminism but has its own distinct approach to the problem of patriarchy. Essentialism at its heart believes that men and women are biologically different and in nature. They think to be a woman is to be caring, empathetic and cooperative. They’ve been accused of being naive for accepting a definition of femininity created by men for the benefit of men so AT ODDS WITH LIBERAL AND RADICAL FEMINISTS (they think ascribing these qualities to women reinforces gender stereotypes and patriarchy). In response, cultural feminists argued the problem isn’t certain characteristics and roles being assigned to women, but that who women are and what they do isn’t valued under patriarchy. They seek to redress this by celebrating the softer qualities they associate with women and point out that men’s aggressive behaviour disrupts and destabilises society. They argue that MEN ARE MORE PRONE TO START CONFLICT, RESORT TO VIOLENCE AND ACT SEFLISHLY. Women are more likely to heal discord, promote dialogue and encourage understanding. Some believe women’s instincts and behaviour are superior to men. A small number, especially THOSE IN THE ECO-FEMINIST MOVEMENT, HAVE ADVOCATED REPLACING PATRIARCHY WITH MATRIARCHY as societies run by women would be MORE PEACEFUL.
THE MAJORITY OF OTHER FEMINISTS ARE UNCOMFORTABLE WITH THE IDEA OF FEMALE SUPERIORITY. Liberal and radical feminists reject it (believe in androgyny), socialists seek equality with men, not replacement. There’s a more general concern that this suggests there’s only one way to be a woman which can narrow choices and opportunities open to women. THEY CLAIM THEY CAN UNITE WOMEN REGARDLESS OF THEIR SOCIAL, ETHNIC OR RACIAL GROUP- controversial as intersectional feminists argue it’s an attempt to gloss over the varying experiences and complex backgrounds that have shaped women in a multitude of different ways.
TRANSGENDER WOMEN AND THEIR ALLIES ARE EQUALLY DISMISSIVE OF THIS IDEA (often felt disregarded and marginalised by a movement which suggests a close link between a woman’s sex and her gender). However, suggested this has increased self-respect and sense of fulfillment by housewives and mothers.
What is the impact of class and ethnicity on the experience of women?
bell hooks- black and minority ethnic women experience patriarchy differently from white, middle class women. Class, gender and ethnicity create multiple layers of inequality, each one increasing the impact of the other.Her most famous book ‘Ain’t I A Woman?; Black women and feminism’ addresses the effects of the intersection of racism and sexism on black women and how its convergence has contributed to black women having the lowest status in society. (Sojourner Truth gave a speech called Ain’t I A Woman)
Are racism and sexism 2 things or the same thing?
Intersectionalist movement saw hypocrisy which led to the third wave
What is the impact of intersectionality in terms of religion x gender, race x socio-economic background and neurodiversity x gender?
Intersectional analysis has developed to look beyond how race and gender intersect, to also look at how other types of identity like class and sexuality can intersect with each other to affect how an individual may be treated in different situations.
Crenshaw- ‘Intersectionality… is the acknowledgement that everyone has their own unique experiences of discrimination and privilege’.
Religion x Gender- Muslim women who wear the hijab can receive a disproportionate amount of Islamophobia as they’re more visually identifiable. Assumptions about their oppression within their community are also made by non-Muslims.
Race x socio-economic background- being wealthy often allows you to avoid certain forms of oppression, but POC aren’t immune to racism just by being in a higher class. Wealthy POC are often held to a higher standard than their white equivalents.
Neurodiversity x gender- autism is often thought of as a ‘male condition’ which women are often less likely to be diagnosed with and therefore supported.
What are Audre Lord’s views?
‘The master’s tools will never dismantle the master’s house’- The title of a speech written by postmodern feminism Lord. ‘master’ implies she’s a black woman (slavery)
The feminist movement needs to be independent from men, if you keep using the same methods you can never dismantle the patriarchy- how you defeat the master is different for different kinds of women, WOC have their own battle to fight and overcome, what works for white women can’t work for them too
‘There is no hierarchy of oppression’- solidarity, if they oppress one group, will then oppress another so need to be united
There are many forms of oppression, sexism stems from racism. Being black didn’t used to be normal. POC can’t profit from oppression , members of oppressed groups act against each other but there can’t be divide for a better society and liberation, eg. an attack on gay women is also an attack on black women as minorities intersect, you shouldn’t have to choose which minority to fight for
What do muslim women and third wave feminism think about intersectionality?
Muslim women- they look at Western culture as women not dressing moderately to attract the male gaze, as their society is oppressed. They’re looked at by other cultures as being part of a male-dominated culture as they have to cover up with burqas etc, despite it being a choice
Third wave- Kimberley Crenshaw coined the concept ‘intersectionality’
DeGraffenreid v. General Motors where black female car workers alleged that they faced discrimination of both sex and race. The court disagreed, argued that GM had taken both into account separately- impractical to treat black women as their own separate group. Crenshaw argued that black women should be treated differently as impacted by sexism and racism, interlocking issues.
You can’t tackle issues differently, ‘the intersectional experience is greater than the sum of racism and sexism’, can’t group them into one minority
Overall how far do feminists agree on intersectionality?
To a small extent as liberal feminists don’t agree, socialists might.
What do top essays do with strands?
REFER TO ALL 4 STRANDS
What does the strand liberal feminism think?
1st wave, still popular in second and third wave, has to be an additional thinker, eg. Friedan, Wollstonecraft, Mill
Sees individualism as the basis of gender equality
-Liberty- women should be able to choose the nature of their own lives (can be a housewife someplace where the personal isn’t political)
-Women should enjoy equality of opportunity with men- access to education and to the labour market
-The law should never discriminate against women (formal/legal equality)
-Women should have equal rights to property (classical like Wollstonecraft would argue)
-Women should have equal political rights- voting and standing for office
-Second wave liberal feminists challenged cultural attitudes which reinforced female inferiority . This was to be achieved through education and challenging sexist attitudes and gender stereotypes
-Does not seek to challenge the private domestic sphere- men and women can stay at home or go to work or both if they want (the person isn’t political)
What does the strand socialist feminism think?
1st/2nd wave
Focus on capitalism and economy in essay, save hooks and Millett, write Engels first
Believe that gender inequality stems from economics and that capitalism creates patriarchy
Engels (proto-feminist) argued that:
-Capitalism needed workers to be looked after by unpaid helpers such as woman housewives
-Women were needed to socialise the next generation of workers and helpers for capitalism
-Women acted as a reserve army of labour (easily fired as unskilled labour, low wages, easily replaceable)
-Because capitalism was based on private property inherited through the male line men needed to ensure undisputed paternity. Female virginity became protected. Men also created monogamous marriage to protect their own interests (and then ignored it)
Many marxist and socialist feminists have supported communal forms of living
Whereas orthodox Marxist feminists like Engels prioritised class over gender (once the revolution comes all women will be emancipated) second wave socialist feminists saw patriarchy and capitalism as interlocking systems of oppression, but Rowbotham disagreed, said 2 revolutions are needed (capitalism then patriarchy)
Modern Marxist feminists have criticised Engels for over-stressing the importance of property. Women increasingly own property but remain oppressed. Women are no longer like feudal serfs.
What does the strand radical feminism think?
Believe that the biggest problem facing society is gender inequality. They’re a diverse group but with some common themes.
The personal is political
-Whilst liberal feminists are reformists radical feminists are revolutionary
-Radical feminists stress the importance of female consciousness (sisterhood) in challenging patriarchy (evolutionary)
-They’re more likely to be difference feminists (Mary Daly) and are more likely to acknowledge social and biological differences. Cultural feminists will celebrate female biology and gender (linked to ecofeminism, eg. Sue Griffin)
-Proposed…
~Abolition of the nuclear family (Dworkin)
~Sexual liberation (Greer)
_Elimination of women’s biological role (Firestone)
What does the strand postmodern feminism think?
Argues that patriarchy manifests in different ways depending on a woman’s race, class etc.
-Supports a more fluid understanding of being a woman, accepting of trans women as gender’s a social construct. Sometimes arguing that because women’s experiences are so different it can become impossible to generalise the term ‘woman’.
-With no fixed understanding of ‘woman’ there was no fixed definition of feminism
-Gender may not be the primary factor affecting woman. Gender needed to be placed beside class, religion and ethnicity
-Intersectionality is key (the more characteristics you have, stack onto each other, problem is more complex)
What are the 3 things that unite ALL feminists?
Patriarchy- All feminists agree women are disadvantaged as a result of their sex and gender. This can and should be challenged.
Political equality- Believe women should have universal suffrage and a right to vote. Women holding positions of power within government, elected women representatives to argue for abortion, women’s issues
Legal equality- Equal protection in the law, eg. DV, rape, gender-based violence. Right to property, divorce, abortion, employment, education, removal of primogeniture
What unites most feminists?
Important for exam!
Sex and gender are distinct- Radical, socialist, liberal, intersectionalist and existentialists say they’re distinct, essentialists, culturals and eco-feminists say they’re the same
Simone de Beauvoir- ‘One is not born a woman, rather she becomes one’
Gender equality- equality feminists (liberals, socialists, postmodern, radicals and existentialists) say yes to gender equality
difference feminists disagree, eg. Mary Daly (cultural), so do eco-feminists, eg. Sue Griffin
The personal is political- everyone but liberals agree
The treatment of women in traditional societies, eg. FGM, forced marriage, polygamy, denial of educational opportunities, dress restrictions, menstruation taboos- Everyone except liberals don’t agree with this as they say it’s ok if it’s your choice, some cultural feminists are also ok with it
What are the 6 disagreements amongst feminists?
-Public/ private debate- to what extent is the personal political
-Reformism versus revolutionary feminism
-The impact of intersectionality- family, language, job opportunities etc.
-Individualism v ‘sisterhood’
-The role and importance of capitalism
-Equality and difference feminism
What is the public/ private debate- to what extent is the personal political?
Public (the personal is political)- everyone
Millett- family is the patriarchy’s chief institution, the law needs to extend into the home
Rowbotham- women are the reserve army of labour, capitalism extends into the home
Private- liberals
Friedan- idea of choice, right to education and job but this can include being a housewife
Overall they disagree to a sizable extent.
What is the reformism versus revolutionary feminism debate?
Reformist- Liberals
Wollstonecraft- right to vote is a cornerstone right
Revolutionary- socialists, radicals
Rowbotham- 2 revolutions to overthrow capitalism then patriarchy
Millett- revolution in the home, reorganisation of societal bonds
Greer- sexual revolution, women should redefine their sexuality and not be reliant on penetration.
She believed that women should live and raise their children together, making their own goods and growing their own food.
Overall it would appear there’s a large agreement but most feminists are liberal. Sizable agreement between strands but small agreement in real life.
What is the debate about the impact of intersectionality- family, language, job opportunities etc?
Intersectionality- bell hooks (postmodern)
Kimberley Crenshaw
Audre Lord
Single issue (gender)- radical, eg. Millett
everyone else
Overall they disagree to some extent.
What is the debate about individualism vs. ‘sisterhood’?
Individualism- liberals
Wollstonecraft, Friedan
individual freedom of choice, eg. rationalism, liberty, autonomy
Sisterhood- women working together to overcome patriarchy
intersectionalists, eg. hooks
Mary Daly- all-women communes, cultural, womyn’s lands
Simone de Beauvoire- existentialist, ‘one is not born a woman rather she becomes one’
Millett, Rowbotham
Overall they disagree to some extent as liberals vs. other strands.
What is the debate about the role and importance of capitalism?
Capitalism is the most important- socialists, eg. Rowbotham, Engels
2 revolutions, ‘reserve army of labour’
Capitalism is not important- cultural
liberals- Friedan, laissez-faire capitalism will unlock women’s potential as not under control of patriarchal state but now free markets, competitive so more focus on business. Women’s involvement in labour market empowered and liberated them from early marriages etc.
Capitalism is less important- existentialist- Simone de Beauvoire
postmodern- bell hooks. Audre Lord
radical- Millett
What is the debate with equality and difference feminism?
Equality:
Liberal- legal and political equality with men, equality means access to the public realm
Socialists- equal rights may be meaningless without social equality like economic power
Radical- equality in the private sphere (family and personal life)
Difference:
Essentialists- women are superior, they should be world leaders so more peace, no wars vs.
Cultural- women are different, can’t make them equal, Paglia and Daly
Eco-feminists- Griffin. sex/gender divide
Overall they disagree to a moderate extent.
What is equality of opportunity?
A situation in which everyone is given an equal chance to succeed. Early feminists tended to believe this could be achieved simply by removing barriers to female achievement and progression but when it became clear this was insufficient in facilitating rapid or radical change, feminists began to campaign for legal and political measures to support and promote women’s equality.
What is the reserve army of labour?
A term used by socialist feminists to refer to members of society who are economically inactive but ready and able to step into employment at a moment’s notice. The ‘reserve army’ can be called upon when employers want to increase productivity following an increase in demand and dispensed with when demand falls.
What are the 4 key themes?
-The state
-The economy
-Human nature: see sex and gender section
-Society: see the personal is political, patriarchy, equality and difference, and intersectionality sections
What is the state?
Women have been badly served by government structures and policies, hasn’t been translated into a single set of solutions about how to address it. Liberals and moderate socialists have sought reforms that would eliminate discrimination and extend women’s rights, whereas radical and Marxist feminists have advocated revolution which led to change. Liberal feminists have worked for changes that would allow women to exercise the same rights as men and to compete equally with them in, eg. political contests and the workplace. Liberal feminists then feel the state needed to do more than extend equality of opportunity to women. They campaigned for specific pieces of legislation that would offer more protection on new rights for women, eg. guaranteed access to contraception and abortion. Radical feminists appreciate this, but think they should’ve been bolder. Patriarchy is so ingrained in the state it can only be eliminated if the existing structures of government are dismantled and there’s a creation of state systems designed for gender equality. Socialist feminists believe patriarchal capitalism emerged from and is upheld by the state. As long as it exists, genuine freedom will be denied. Revolution to overthrow the state leads to short period of dictatorship of proletariat.
What is the economy?
Traditionally women have only worked outside the home out of economic necessity. The jobs they were allowed to do tended to be undervalued- less respect than men and with their positions. Some roles were closed to women entirely or even in theoretically open paths they were rarely considered for promotion. Their jobs were less secure, more likely to be made redundant.
Feminists want to see:
-An end to the gender pay gap which sees women earn less than men for the same or similar work; eg. female cleaners earn less than male refuse collectors
-Women being promoted to the highest levels in an organisation (‘glass ceiling’)
-No jobs considered off limits for women
For socialist feminists, the problem isn’t just women being denied equality of opportunity by market economy, but capitalism is the root cause of female oppression- influenced by Engels who argued in the pre-capitalist world the work done by women had been considered equally vital- it was the capitalist mindset that had led to women being considered property of men rather than full members of society, women were treated as a reserve army of labour, employed when male workers were in short supply. This enables employers to keep wages low as their current workforce are so easily replaceable, once enough men can work women are replaced. Rowbotham said an end to capitalism would benefit women more than men.
What are the first and second waves of feminism with their links to strands?
First wave (liberalism)- John Locke and Thomas Paine asserted ‘the rights of man’ and American Declaration of Independence (1776) ‘all men are created equal’ which led to the 1st wave seeking to reduce sexual discrimination primarily through a campaign for equal suffrage, women are rational, equally deserving- Wollstonecraft
Second wave (liberal, socialist and radical feminism)- By 1928, women in the UK had won the right to vote but by 1960s it had done little to increase equality.
Liberal feminists- re-emerged in postwar era with Friedan (equal legal and political rights 1963), strikes in UK like Abortion Act 1967, Equal Pay Act 1970 but this movement was predominantly h=white, Western and middle-class and largely ignored inequality in the private sphere so too limited
Socialist feminists- rejected reformist approach of liberals, instead maintained capitalist economy was root of women’s inequality so working-class revolution was needed, early socialist feminists were Marxists, eg. Engels said women are the property of men in marriage, contract of economic maintenance for sexual and domestic services, the traditional nuclear family was a capitalist economic unit with male ownership and inheritance of private property, women are a reserve army of labour, no reduced wage levels, unpaid housewife, solution is working-class revolution
Radical feminists- 2nd half of 20th century, argue primacy of gender divisions over class, ‘the personal is political’, patriarchy in the private sphere confines most women to the home, excluded from equality in the public sphere, sexual inequality, reject divide between public and private sphere
What are the comparisons and contrasts in feminism?
Liberals have long recognised that socialisation is a key factor in constructing gender roles but don’t seek to challenge private family and marriage roles and relationships, radicals see these as the root cause of sexual inequality, a revolution of it eliminates private patriarchy so they reject the ‘public-private split’ but liberals accept and value it. Marxist feminists are closer to radicals as they reject the split but argue inequality is rooted in the public rather than the private sphere so change has to begin in wider capitalist economy. Liberals are reformist, others are revolutionary. Marxists say inequality is rooted in the public sphere not private but all say gender is a social construct.
What is difference feminism? (article)
Essentialist feminists have rejected androgyny, instead believed there are fundamental differences biologically in men and women. Women are inherently more caring than men (violent and competitive). Biology is destiny. Women shouldn’t aspire to be ‘male-identified’ but reject goal of gender equality, celebrate their womanhood. Women are superior, matriarchy.
How were women demonised in history and how has this continued during the feminist movement?
Adam and Eve- women are temptresses and weaker, more gullible and irrational than men- prone to be in league with the Devil.
Women’s sexual passions portrayed as insatiable, sexual lures distract men from productive activity and lawful behaviour.
Hinduism- a man’s semen is a precious life force and can only be persuaded to part with it reluctantly from a women.
Witches show women are susceptible to the Devil’s wiles
19th century- the vilest abuse was heaped upon women campaigners for female suffrage
20th century- 2nd wave feminists were interrupted by male critics
Why does Godwin reject excessive romanticism and biological difference?
Romanticism- vision of womanhood as more innocent, beautiful, virtuous and in need of protection
If ‘female human nature’ isn’t significantly different from ‘male human nature’ there shouldn’t be a ‘sexual division of labour’. Biological differences lead to social inequalities between sexes in an overtly patriarchal assumption.
Why is Firestone critical of female biology and what’s the argument against this?
Biological differences are the source of women’s oppression. ‘Pregnancy is barbaric’- artificial womb essential for women’s liberation (implanted in men?)
‘Theoretical dead-end… implicitly accepts the patriarchal claim that women’s subordination is decreed by nature’. Inequalities between the sexes have been socially constructed according to patriarchal norms.
How are radical feminists different from other types of feminists?
Women are confronted by patriarchy which pervades every aspect of life. Gender inequality runs deeper than racism, class exploitation etc.
What does Greer argue about sex?
Patriarchy is also reflected in sexual repression. Women have been ‘castrated’ as demand to be passive, submissive and asexual creatures. So their liberation would be marked by personal and sexual emancipation- be able to seek gratification as active and autonomous beings
