Felidae Flashcards
A recent study described the effects of procedure duration and atipamezole adtministration on hyperkalemia in tigers and lions anesthetized with alpha two agonists.
Hyperkalemia has been reported in what spcies?
What ECG changes occur with hyperkalemia?
What were the statistically significant findings from that study?
J. of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 51(3):490-496 (2020)
THE EFFECTS OF PROCEDURE DURATION AND ATIPAMEZOLE ADMINISTRATION ON HYPERKALEMIA IN TIGERS (PANTHERA TIGRIS) AND LIONS (PANTHERA LEO) ANESTHETIZED WITH α-2 AGONISTS
Michael S. McEntire, Edward C. Ramsay, Josh Price, Andrew C. Cushing
Abstract: A retrospective analysis of 40 extended (>2 hr) anesthetic events in eight lions (Panthera leo) and 32 tigers (Panthera tigris) was performed using a hierarchical linear growth curve model to assess the effects of anesthetic time, α-2 adrenoreceptor agonist dosages, administration of atipamezole, and biochemical parameters on rising plasma K+ concentrations. Hyperkalemia was first noted at a mean time of 187 min (range: 131–226 min), with time under anesthesia as a statistically significant predictor of K+ concentration (P < 0.0001). A significant two-way interaction between time and atipamezole administration (P = 0.0082) for rising K+ concentrations was demonstrated, indicating that administration of atipamezole can mitigate the rise in K+ concentrations. Administration of atipamezole beyond 150 min of anesthetic time was less effective in reducing K+ concentrations than if administered earlier. Electrocardiographic abnormalities were noted in eight animals, including three hyperkalemic individuals. Lions developed significantly greater plasma K+ concentrations than tigers (P = 0.0009) during anesthesia. No biochemical parameter was identified as a significant indicator of which individuals will develop hyperkalemia. Clinicians anesthetizing any large nondomestic felid should monitor electrolytes regularly during anesthetic events; consider early, partial- to full-dose reversal of α-2 agonists; and be prepared to correct potentially life-threatening electrocardiographic abnormalities resulting from hyperkalemia.
Key Points:
- Hyperkalemia under anesthesia seen in lions, tigers, jaguars, leopards, cheetah, and cougars
- K > 5.5 mEq/L
- HyperK may have a link to using alpha 2 agonists, but some hyperK occurs without using that in your protocol
- 7 tigers and 3 lions developed hyperK in the sample population
- ECG - inc height of T wave or change in polarity
- Although no differences in ECG between normokalemic and hyperkalemic animals when read out by a board certified cardiologist
- 3 arrests - 2 were hyperkalemic and did not survive; 1 normokalemic responded to reversals and CPR
- Statistically significant findings
- Lions higher K than tigers
- Atipamazole dose
- Give atipamazole IM to avoid potential severe hypotension if administered IV
- Less effective after 150min
- Increasing atipamazole dose increasingly mitigated K increases
- Length of anesthesia
- No effect of insulin concentration could be paired with results
- Alpha 2 agonists in domestic species bind to pancreatic cells and inhibit insulin release
Take Home: Lions had higher K than tigers, atipamazole less effective after 150min, increasing atipamazole dose will help prevent as high of a K concentration, longer anesthesia = more likely to have hyper K
A recent paper described hyperkalemia in two jaguars anesthetized with dexmedetomidine, ketamine, and isoflurane.
How do you treat hyperkalemia?
What are adverse effects of atipamezole administration?
Romano, M., Boesch, J. M., Peralta, S., Parker, C., & Kollias, G. (2018). Hyperkalemia in two jaguars (Panthera onca) Anesthetized with dexmedetomidine, ketamine, and isoflurane. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 49(2), 505-507.
Abstract:
Two jaguars were anesthetized with dexmedetomidine, ketamine, and isoflurane. Arterial blood samples analyzed shortly after darting revealed no abnormalities. Samples analyzed 2 and 1.5 hr after darting revealed moderate hyperkalemia in both animals (6.8 and 6.2 mEq/L, respectively). Shortly after hyperkalemia was recognized, one jaguar developed electrocardiographic abnormalities (sinoventricular rhythm and widened QRS complexes), and a few minutes later, suffered cardiopulmonary arrest. Resuscitation with chest compressions, intermittent positive-pressure ventilation, and epinephrine was successful, and autonomous breathing and circulation resumed within a few minutes. Anesthesia-related hyperkalemia has been reported in a variety of large felids but has not been reported previously in jaguars. In all reports, a-2 adrenergic agonists were used as part of the immobilization protocol. Due to the presumptively high incidence and mortality caused by this complication, frequent monitoring of electrolyte concentrations and prompt treatment of hyperkalemia is recommended when anesthetizing large felids, including jaguars.
Key points:
- Hyperkalemia in two jaguars anesetheetized with dexmedetomidine, ketamine, and isoflurane
- Within 40min-1hr while under anesthesia
- Stable anesthesia with normal ECG normal for female
- Sinoventricular rhythm with widened QRS and cardiopulmonary arrest 5 min later in male
- Epinepherine and CPR performed with normal sinus rhythm returning
- Recovered uneventfully
- Hyperkalemia reported complication in large felids but not yet in jaguar
- Hyperkalemia treatment should be available: dextrose, insulin, calcium chloride (or calcium gluconate), sodium bicarbonate, and 0.9% sodium chloride
- Reversal with atipamezole should be considered
- Adverse effects: tachycardia, hypotension, excitement, seizures
Take home: Monitor for hyperkalemia and have treatment ready when anesthetizing jaguars
A recent study described the use of dexmedetomidine-butorphanol-midazolam protocols in cheetahs.
What were the cardiorespiratory effects of dexmed-butorphanol-midazolam in cheetahs?
What two parameters decreased over time?
What helped mitigate rough recoveries?
Woc Colburn, A. M., Murray, S., Hayek, L. A. C., Marker, L., & Sanchez, C. R. (2017).
Cardiorespiratory effects of dexmedetomidine-butorphanol-midazolam (dbm): A fully reversible anesthetic protocol in captive and semi–free-ranging cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus).
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 48(1), 40-47.
Abstract:
Multiple anesthesia protocols have been used in the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus). Twenty healthy, captive cheetahs were immobilized with dexmedetomidine (15.8 ± 1.9 mcg/kg), butorphanol (0.22 ± 0.03 mg/kg), and midazolam (0.18 ± 0.03 mg/kg) by intramuscular injection. Induction, recumbency, and recovery times were recorded, and physiologic parameters were monitored. Anesthesia was antagonized with atipamezole (0.125 ± 0.02 mg/kg) and naltrexone (0.1 ± 0.014 mg/kg) intramuscularly. All cheetahs were safely anesthetized with this protocol. Cheetahs were laterally recumbent by 8 ± 3.5 min. Cardiorespiratory values were stable throughout the length of anesthesia. Moderate hypertension, with systolic blood pressure ranging from 178 ± 19.8 mm Hg, was initially observed but decreased over time. There was a statistical decreasing trend in temperature; SpO2; and systolic, mean, and diastolic blood pressure, but not in heart rate and end-tidal CO2. Recoveries were rapid, with cheetahs standing by 11.3 ± 5.7 min post reversal administration. This is the first report of a dexmedetomidine-butorphanol-midazolam anesthetic combination in cheetahs. Overall, this anesthetic protocol proved to be safe and effective.
- MBMz has been used in multiple carnivores with fast onset, good muscle relaxation, and rapid recoveries
- Severe hypertension, sudden arousals, bradycardia, hypoventilation, and metabolic acidosis have been observed
- Levomedetomidine decreases the sedative and analgesic properties of dexmedetomidine at high doses and still provides effects on vasculature
- Cardiorespiratory effects:
- Initial mild hypertension that improved (better than persistent in medetomidine procedures)
- Most required IPPV (improvd SpO2 and ETCO2)
- Parameter that decreased over time: temperature; SpO2; blood pressure
- No change in heart rate and end-tidal CO2
- Good sedation at 8 minutes – still wait 10-15 for full effect
- Two cheetahs still had sudden arousals
- Hyperexcitability seen with atipamezole: dexmedetomidine ratios of 10:1, better with 7.6 : 1
- Metabolic acidosis (low bicarb) observed, IPPV needed occasionally
- Mild to moderate hypertension during initial half of procedures, decreases to normal ranges over time
Take Home: DBM provides an effective protocol for cheetahs – beware of sudden arousals, hypertension, apnea – reverse with half atipamezole. Dexmedetomidine-butorphanol-midazolam cause initial hypertension but had better blood pressure than medetomidine protocols.
A recent study compared ketamine-midazolam-medetomidine (KMM) and ketamine medetomidine (KM) protocols in cheetahs.
What was the effect of kKMM vs just KM (more alpha2) on pulse pressure index (PPI - indicator of renal blood flow)?
What were the effects of atipamezole administration?
Stagegaard, J., Hørlyck, A., Hydeskov, H. B., & Bertelsen, M. F. (2017).
Ketamine-medetomidine and ketamine-medetomidine-midazolam anesthesia in captive cheetahs (acinonyx jubatus)—comparison of blood pressure and kidney blood flow.
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 48(2), 363-370.
Abstract:
Six clinically healthy captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) were anesthetized twice using two different drug combinations to investigate if blood pressure and kidney blood flow are affected by medetomidine dosage. Protocol KM (2.0 mg/kg ketamine and 0.05 mg/kg medetomidine) was compared with protocol KMM (2.0 mg/kg ketamine, 0.02 mg/kg medetomidine, and 0.1 mg/kg midazolam). Heart rate (HR), respiratory rate (RR), body temperature, end-tidal carbon dioxide pressure (ETCO2), and anesthetic depth were monitored every 10 min. Noninvasive mean (MAP), systolic (SAP), and diastolic (DAP) arterial blood pressure were measured, and Duplex Doppler ultrasonography was performed on the kidneys. The mean arterial resistive index (RI) was determined and the pulse pressure index (PPI) was calculated, as indicators for kidney blood flow. There were no significant differences in induction and recovery times. MAP was significantly higher with KM than KMM at 35 min, and in both protocols decreased significantly after atipamezole administration. DAP was significantly higher at 25 and 35 min in animals anesthetized with KM; it also decreased significantly with both protocols after atipamezole administration. The PPI was significantly lower throughout the procedure with KM, and with both protocols increased significantly after atipamezole administration. Both the higher blood pressure and the reduced PPI with KM were likely a direct effect of the higher medetomidine dosage, and these findings indicate that lower medetomidine dosages might reduce hypertension and lead to a better PPI in cheetah immobilization.
- Hypertension – common complication in cheetahs with ketamine and medetomidine anesthesia
- Chronic renal disease is common in cheetahs
- a-2-adrenergic agonists cause a transient increased blood pressure and decreased renal blood flow - use of medetomidine may contribute to kidney damage in cheetahs
- 6 cheetahs anesthetized with either:
- KM (2.0 mg/kg ketamine and 0.05 mg/kg medetomidine)
- KMM (2.0 mg/kg ketamine, 0.02 mg/kg medetomidine, and 0.1 mg/kg midazolam)
- Both protocols had rapid and smooth onset of anesthesia and stable vital functions throughout
- No significant differences in induction and recovery times
- Significant difference in the mean blood pressure was only measured after 35 min, despite the fact that the medetomidine amount was less than half in the KMM protocol compared with the KM protocol
- MAP was significantly higher with KM than KMM at 35 min
- MAP - decreased significantly after atipamezole in both protocols
- Lower medetomidine dosage might reduce the hypertension and lead to a better PPI during cheetah anesthesia
- Mean arterial resistive index (RI) was determined and the pulse pressure index (PPI) was calculated, as indicators for kidney blood flow
- PPI was significantly lower throughout the procedure with KM, and with both protocols increased significantly after atipamezole administration
- Both the higher blood pressure and the reduced PPI with KM were likely a direct effect of the higher medetomidine dosage
-
Ketamine-midazolam-medetomidine (KMM) compared to KM had:
- Lower respiratory rate, MAP at 35 min, DAP at 25 and 35 min
- Higher PPI (aka more normal; less alpha-2 = less SVR = lower DAP)
- Between KM and KMM, there was no difference in:
- Anesthetic effect (time to first effect, to lateral recumbency, to head raise, to release; central pupils)
- HR, ETCO2,Body temperature, SAP, RI
-
Atipamezole administration caused:
- Decreased MAP, SAP, DAP
- Increased PPI
- Hypertension improvement with atipamezole administration suggests that it was mediated by alpha-2 agonist
Conclusions: Lower medetomidine doses in cheetahs may provide a better pulse pressure index and less hypertension.
What clinicopathologic value increased in black footed cats administered butorphanol midazolam medetomidine?
What occurred in wild cats pursued before restraint vs captive?
Evaluation of two doses of butorphanol-medetomidine-midazolam for the immobilization of wild versus captive black-footed cats (Felis nigripes).
Eggers B, Tordiffe AS, Lamberski N, Lawrenz A, Sliwa A, Wilson B, Meyer LC.
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine. 2020 Nov;51(3):497-506.
Black-footed cats administered butorphanol-midazolam-medetomidine:
Occasionally required supplemental anesthetic
Had no vomiting, sudden arousal, bradycardia, hypotension
Had poor SPO2 readings (likely due to alpha-2 vasoconstriction)
Had hyperglycemia
Wild cats who were pursued before restraint (rather than excavated form burrows or captive) had:
Higher HR, rectal temp, lactate (correlated with distance pursued)
Metabolic acidosis
Hypocapnia
Excavated cats had lower body temps
Groups did not differ in blood pressure or respiratory rate
Conclusions: Black-footed cats can be safely anesthetized with butorphanol-midazolam-medetomidine, and those that are actively pursued have expected metabolic changes.
What felid species had a higher prevalence of lepto in California?
What was the association of age, sex, region?
What was the most common serology in both spp? (which lepto)
Association between FIV status and lepto?
Leptospira Prevalence And Its Association With Renal Pathology In Mountain Lions (Puma Concolor) And Bobcats (Lynx Rufus) In California, USA
Mary H. Straub, Jaime L. Rudd, Leslie W. Woods, Deana L. Clifford, and Janet E. Foley
Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 57(1), 2021, pp. 27–39
Mountain lions >> bobcats
Mountain lions increased with older age, males, in N CA
No assoc with ASL in bobcats
Interstitial nephritis assoc with lepto positive animals
Most common serology in both spp Leptospirosis interrogans serogroup Pomona
No assoc with FIV and lepto or nephritis
Describe common findings in a retrospective of disorders of the oral cavity in large felids.
Association with age?
Most commonly affected species?
Most commonly affected teeth?
Issue with feeding bones of inappropriate size?
A RETROSPECTIVE STUDY OF REPORTED DISORDERS OF THE ORAL CAVITY IN LARGE FELIDS IN AUSTRALIAN ZOOS.
Whitten C, Vogelnest L, D’Arcy R, Thomson P, Phalen D.
J Zoo Wildl Med. 2019 Apr;50(1):16-22.
64% of big cats in the survey had an incident of oral disease
Tooth fractures were most common in older cats (>8 years), especially in tigers and lions
Most commonly canines > premolars > incisors > molars
Tigers (86%) > lions (78.3%) > jaguars (74%) >>> cougars (8.3%) > cheetahs (6%) > snow leopard (4.3%)
21 cases of a bone lodging in the oral cavity between maxillary and mandibular canines
About half required anesthesia for dislodging
Chewing on bones can improve oral health
Long bones cut into short pieces are more likely to get lodged
Conclusions: Older tigers and lions have a very high prevalence of tooth fractures. Feeding appropriately sized bones to big cats is important to prevent bones from lodging in the oral cavity.
A recent study described teh epidemiology of FHV in cheetahs.
What are the AZA recommendations for FHV management in cheetahs?
What factors impacted the chance of cheetah cubs having FHV?
What is the most important predictor of FHV infection for cubs?
Epidemiology of clinical feline herpesvirus infection in zoo-housed cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus)
Witte CL, Lamberski N, Rideout BA, Vaida F, Citino SB, Barrie MT, Haefele HJ, Junge RE, Murray S, Hungerford LL.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 2017 Oct 15;251(8):946-56.
AZA recommendations FHV management:
- Separate dam and cubs from other animals
- Remove cubs from dam if it develops lesions
- Killed vaccine at 6, 9, 12, and 16 weeks
- Booster breeding and pregnant females (reduces severity and viral load)
Key Points:
Chance of cubs having FHV was:
- Much higher with use of a modified live vaccine pre-parturition
- Higher in primiparous dams, small litter, male sex.
- Not associated with dam FHV status or severity of previous FHV disease*
- Not associated with cub removal
- Most cubs had signs while nursing (<3 mos old)
The most important predictor of FHV infection was having a dam that had received a preparturition FHV vaccine regimen that included a modified-live virus vaccine versus a dam that had received no preparturition vaccine.
Clinical signs of cystinuria in servals?
How do you test for cystinuria?
Association between cystinuria and sex, age, repro status, age neutered, diet urinary collection method?
PREVALENCE OF CYSTINURIA IN SERVALS (LEPTAILURUS SERVAL) IN THE UNITED STATES
Sarah A Cannizzo, Mindy Stinner, Suzanne Kennedy-Stoskopf
J Zoo Wildl Med. 2017 Dec;48(4):1102-1107.
Cystinuria can cause crystalluria, stranguria, hematuria, obstruction and death, renal failure, also neurologic signs
Cyanide-nitroprusside test - qualitative assay where concentration of cystine causes red/purple color change
Results for cystinuria: 27% strong positive, 54% weak positive, 19% negative
No difference with sex, age, repro status, or age neutered, diet, urine collection method
If weak positives are true positives, then prevalence of cystinuria could be as high as 81%
One group of siblings followed autosomal recessive pattern (1 positive, 2 weakly positive, 1 negative)
Conclusions: Cystinuria is relatively common in servals and may be inherited.
A recent study described amyloidosis in caracals.
What stains are used to diagnose amyloidosis?
Name 2 other nondomestic felids commonly affected by amyloidosis.
Amyloidosis in caracals (caracal caracal)
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 51.1 (2020): 202-209.
Abstract: Nine cases of amyloidosis in caracals (Caracal caracal) from three different institutions in Europe were reviewed and evaluated histopathologically. The six males and three females died between 2008 and 2018 at an age of 6 yr 2.5 mo (median 6 interquartile range). In two out of nine (2/9) animals, amyloidosis was an incidental postmortem finding; the animals died of bronchopneumonia and gastric ulceration due to Helicobacter spp., respectively. Seven (7/9) animals suffered from acute renal failure due to amyloidosis, one of them additionally of cardiac decompensation. The predominant clinical signs were weight loss, lethargy, dys- or anorexia, dehydration, increased BUN and creatinine, and azotemia. The main gross lesion was a pale renal cortex on cut surface; in two animals, the kidneys appeared enlarged. Histologically, glomerular amyloid was present in every animal (9/9), and was the predominant renal manifestation of amyloidosis. Additional findings included splenic amyloid (8/8), amyloid in the lamina propria of the intestine (5/5), and amyloid in the lingual submucosa (4/4). Gastric mineralization was present in four animals suffering from renal failure. In the animal dying from bronchopneumonia, severe pancreatic amyloid deposits mainly affecting the exocrine pancreas (1/5) were identified. Immunohistochemistry was employed to identify amyloid AA in eight cases; only in the caracal dying from bronchopneumonia AA was amyloid confirmed. In several organs, especially in those where only small amyloid deposits were detected, a Congo red stain was often necessary to confirm the deposition. The etiology of the amyloidosis remains unknown. Three caracals were related within two generations, another three within four generations, so one might hypothesize a familial trait. In conclusion, amyloidosis should be considered as a significant disease in the caracal. Particularly in cases with renal disease, it should be included as a major differential diagnosis
KEY POINTS:
- Amyloidosis: eosinophilic, beta-pleated proteinaceous deposits in organs
- Stains positive with Congo red or green birefringence with polarization
- Amyloidosis AA comes from excessive serum amyloid A with chronic infection, inflammation, or neoplasia
- Commonly deposited in kidneys
- Seen in cheetahs and black-footed cats
- Case Series: Nine caracals with amyloidosis (all had glomerular deposits, 7/9 died from renal failure)
- Splenic amyloidosis also common
- Seven cases did not react to amyloid AA antibodies, so maybe different type
- May be familial, from infection (FIV),
- Conclusions: Amyloidosis should be considered as a differential for caracals with renal failure.
INTRO
- Amyloidosis is a disease in which amyloid, a homogenous proteinaceous, eosinophilic material, is deposed mostly extracellularly in many organs.
- Histologically it can be stained with the azo dye Congo red (CR)
- Amyloidosis may exhibit various clinical forms and lesions, for example kidney or hepatic failure, diabetes mellitus, and Alzheimer’s disease
- The most common type of amyloid described in domestic animals and nondomestic felids is amyloid AA
- Chronic stress has been linked to AA amyloidosis in a variety of species, while genetic, familial AA amyloidosis has been described in certain breeds of dogs and cats
- Amyloidosis has previously been reported in cheetahs, Siberian tigers, black footed cats, and one caracal
CASE SERIES
- Nine cases of amyloidosis in caracals (Caracal caracal) from three different institutions in Europe were reviewed and evaluated histopathologically
- The six males and three females died between 2 and 15 yr of age
- In 2/9 animals, amyloidosis was an incidental postmortem finding; the animals died of bronchopneumonia and gastric ulceration due to Helicobacter spp., respectively. 7/9 animals suffered from acute renal failure due to amyloidosis, one of them additionally of cardiac decompensation
- Histologically, glomerular amyloid was present in every animal (9/9), and was the predominant renal manifestation of amyloidosis
- Additional findings included splenic amyloid (8), amyloid in the lamina propria of the intestine (5), and amyloid in the lingual submucosa (4).
- Gastric mineralization was present in four animals suffering from renal failure
- Immunohistochemistry was employed to identify amyloid AA in eight cases; only in the caracal dying from bronchopneumonia AA was amyloid confirmed
- Congo red staining was needed in majority of cases to confirm presence of AA
DISCUSSION
- Glomerular amyloid deposition was present in every animal of this study, and could be the predominant renal manifestation of amyloidosis in caracals
- Glomerular amyloid deposition found in this study contrasts with the predominant deposition within the renal medulla of Siberian tigers, cheetahs, and black-footed cats
- Despite that amyloid AA is the main type seen in captive and wild felids, in seven caracals tissues were unreactive with the antibodies applied against amyloid AA, indicating that the amyloidosis was of another type.
- Based on ZIMS pedigree data, three caracals (3/9) in this study were related within two generations. Three other caracals (3/9) were related within four generations—there may be a genetic component, as is seen in some domestic cats
Most common causes of morbidity in neonate amur leopards?
Non-neonates?
What musculoskeletal lesions are a significant cause of morbidity in captive amur leopards?
A RETROSPECTIVE STUDY OF MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY IN THE NORTH AMERICAN AMUR LEOPARD (PANTHERA PARDUS ORIENTALIS) POPULATION IN ZOOLOGIC INSTITUTIONS FROM 1992 TO 2014
Julia E Napier, Michael S Lund, Douglas L Armstrong, Denise McAloose
J Zoo Wildl Med. 2018 Mar;49(1):70-78.
Most common causes of morbidity in neonates were infection, maternal neglect, maternal trauma
Causes of morbidity in non-neonates: Musculoskeletal > reproductive > dental > cardiopulmonary = GI > urogenital
MSK: Footpad abnormalities, esp. abrasions in juveniles; arthritis and neoplasia in older animals
Repro: Pyometra was relatively common (17%) in females over 5 years old
Dental: Broken teeth, esp. in juveniles
Cardiac: Murmurs (rarely fatal)
GI: typically nonspecific, but rare trichobezoars (n=2) and pancreatic neoplasia (n=2)
UG: hematuria and cystitis in juveniles, CKD in geriatric
Footpad lesions are likely secondary to behavioral abnormalities (pacing, hair pulling, etc.)
Conclusions: Footpad lesions are a significant cause of morbidity in captive amur leopards.
Overall most common category for cause of death in snow leopards?
Which age groups more likely to die of infectious dz?
Which sex more likely to die of urinary tract dz?
Describe relationship between CKD, cardiac fibrosis, veno-occlusive dz
What virus was associated with oral papilloma formation?
Cause of death overall: non-infectious > infectious > inflammatory
Neoplasia and degenerative joint disease were more common
Coloboma in 30% of deceased neonates
Commonly upper eyelid agenesis, persistent pupillary membranes, iris colobomas
Juveniles and neonates 2.6 times more likely to die of infectious disease than adults/geriatrics
Males were 2.3 times more likely to die of urinary tract disease than females
Most common location of osteoarthritis = coxofemoral joint
Geriatric animals were 6.7 times more likely to have DJD than other age groups
Panthera uncia papilloma virus1 (PuPV-1) is associated with oral papilloma formation
Strong correlation between snow leopards with CRD, cardiac fibrosis, and veno-occlusive disease
Conclusions: Snow leopards get colobomas, chronic kidney disease, and oral squamous cell carcinomas.
A recent study described the morbidity and mortality of clouded leopards.
Most common cause of death in clouded leopards?
Most common causes of morbidity?
Most common site of self-induced alopecia?
Which neoplasia most common?
Where on body was SCC commonly found?
Thorel, M., Pignon, C., Arne, P., Donnelly, T. M., & Rivière, J. (2020).
Clouded leopard (neofelis nebulosa) morbidity and mortality in captive-bred populations: a comprehensive retrospective study of medical data from 271 individuals in european, asian, and australian zoos.
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 51(1), 150-158.
Abstract: The clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) is classified as vulnerable on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species. However, diseases affecting this species across zoo populations are not well documented. The primary objective of this retrospective study was to identify common and significant causes of morbidity and mortality in captive-bred clouded leopards from European, Asian, and Australian institutions. Medical records from 44 zoological parks that held 271 clouded leopards from 1934 to 2017 were reviewed. Major causes of mortality in the dead leopards (n = 141) were respiratory disease (17%), maternal neglect and starvation (12%), generalized infectious disease (10%), digestive disease (10%), and trauma (10%). Six animals lived more than 20 yr and two were older than 22 yr. Diseases were recorded 344 times (average of two per leopard) in 166 living leopards. The body systems most frequently affected by disease in these 166 individuals were, in order of frequency, integumentary (prevalence = 21%), digestive (21%), respiratory (16%), musculoskeletal (12%), and urinary (10%) systems. Neoplasia (7%) was less frequent, followed by cardiovascular (5%), genital (3%), and viral (3%) disorders. Extensive, self-induced alopecia on the tail and dorsum was the most frequently reported dermatological disease, which is proposed to be called the “clouded leopard alopecia syndrome.” The most common neoplasm was pheochromocytoma (1%), followed by squamous cell carcinoma of the paw pads, pleural mesothelioma and multicentric lymphomas (<1% each). Dilated cardiomyopathy (2%) was the most common cardiovascular disease. Bronchopneumonia (7%), enteritis (4%), and nephritis (4%) were the most frequently reported respiratory, digestive, and renal diseases, respectively. Diagnosed disease incidence was significantly higher in Europe. This paper reports the results of a comprehensive study of the causes of morbidity and mortality in European, Asian, and Australian clouded leopard zoo populations.
Key Points:
- TO THE POINT
- Females are more likely to live > 15 years
- Caused of death: respiratory > maternal neglect > infection > GI = trauma > stillbirth > urinary = cardiovascular > pheochromocytoma
- Morbidity: skin disease, trauma, CKD, pheochromocytomoa, SCC of paw pads
- Self Induced alopecia sydrome
- Lesions common along lumbar, lateral tail, and pelvis
- Less common in Asia than Europe or ME zoos
- May have genetic origin
- Pheochromocytomas are most common neoplasm
- Clouded leopards found in continental Southeast Asia ranging from Nepal to china and continental Malaysia.
- Number of females > 15 yr old significantly greater than males. Lifespan ~17-22 yrs.
- Skin diseases most commonly reported disorder.
- Most commonly extensive, self-induced alopecia.
- Lumbar to tail regions, with tail most commonly affected.
- Oral or topical gluticocorticoids often used, periodic resurgence of clinical signs with discontinuation.
- Some extreme cases, long-term benzodiazepines, tail amp, or both needed.
- Antihistamines ineffective in this study population. Some abx for secondary infections.
- Recommendations for improved care:
- Derm disorders:
- CL in Asian institutions fewer lesions.
- Might be related to climate, but pedigree analysis shows genetics more likely.
- Oclacitinib maleate (Apoquel) has been used – Immunomodulator inhibiting Janus kinases; prolonged use associated with life-threatening acute inflammatory conditions.
- Derm lesions of clouded leopard alopecia syndrome characterized by linear alopecia along sides of the tail.
- Possible causes – peripheral neuropathy, catecholamine secreting pheochromocytomas, genetic factors, endocrine dz.
- Phaeochromocytomas may cause chronic systemic hypertension and subsequent diffuse follicular telogenization of hair follicles.
- Hair follicles remaining in the resting telogen phase and not entering the growth anagen phase could explain the macroscopic alopecia and can be investigated by comparing biopsies from alopecic and normal skin.
- Glucocorticoid treatment can also cause telogenization.
- Hair follicles remaining in the resting telogen phase and not entering the growth anagen phase could explain the macroscopic alopecia and can be investigated by comparing biopsies from alopecic and normal skin.
- Phaeochromocytomas may cause chronic systemic hypertension and subsequent diffuse follicular telogenization of hair follicles.
- CL in Asian institutions fewer lesions.
- Musculoskeletal dz including trauma:
- Intraspecific bites, especially older females that are freq attacked and bitten on pairing with younger males.
- The AZA recommends pairing animals for breeding before they reach 1 year of age to prevent attacks on the female by the male.
- Urinary disorders:
- Performing regular CBC/chem from 8 yr + may be critical for diagnosis of renal dz.
- Tubulointerstitial disorders same freq as glomerular disease.
- Performing regular CBC/chem from 8 yr + may be critical for diagnosis of renal dz.
- Neoplasia:
- Pheochromocytomas most common, consistent with other literature.
- AUS and CT recommended for health checks in animals greater than 10 yrs.
- Systemic hypertension, retinal detachment, renal or pulmonary edema, cardiac fibrosis should be investigated.
- Metanephrine and normetanephrine metabolites of epi and norepi can be measured but value in clouded leopards not known.
- UA, UPC for renal function and relation to hypertension.
- Both adrenals should always be evaluated on histo at necropsy.
- Special attention should be given to paw pads, low but unusual SCCs.
- Possible cause of unknown lameness.
- Lymphoma and pleural mesothelioma also reported.
- Cardiovascular system:
- DCM most frequent heart disease (unlike HCM in domestic cats).
- Echos recommended during routine health checks.
- Derm disorders:

Antemortem methods for TB diagnosis in lions?
CONSERVATION CHALLENGES: THE LIMITATIONS OF ANTEMORTEM TUBERCULOSIS TESTING IN CAPTIVE ASIATIC LIONS (PANTHERA LEO PERSICA).
Molenaar FM, Burr PD, Swift BM, Rees CE, Masters N.
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine. 2020 Jun;51(2):426-32.
Antemortem methods for TB diagnosis in lions:
Single comparative intradermal TB test in cervical area
Antibody detection
Culture and PCR of sputum or BAL
Key Points:
1.1 wild-caught Asiatic lions were tested for TB prior to introduction to a zoo
Intradermal TB in eyelids were positive/suspect at 72h (larger swelling with bovine PPD than avian)
Interferon-gamma release assay on heparinized blood (validated for domestic cats) was positive
PCR to detect MTBC found live bacteria in both blood samples
BAL for culture and MTBC-specific PCR were negative
No granulomatous lesions found on antemortem diagnostics or necropsy
Compare and contrast the STAT-PAK, DPP, and TST tests for TB in lions.
Which test was more sensitive than serology?
Which test is indicative of cell mediated response?
MYCOBACTERIUM BOVIS IN FREE-RANGING LIONS (PANTHERA LEO) - EVALUATION OF SEROLOGICAL AND TUBERCULIN SKIN TESTS FOR DETECTION OF INFECTION AND DISEASE
Michele A. Miller, Peter Buss, Tashnica Taime Sylvester, Konstantin P. Lyashchenko, Lin-Mari deKlerk-Lorist, Roy Bengis, Markus Hofmeyr, Jennifer Hofmeyr, Nomkhosi Mathebula, Guy Hausler, Paul van Helden, Eliza Stout, Sven D.C. Parsons, Francisco Olea-Popelka
Most culture positive lions were seropositive on STATpak and DPP vetTB and TST reactive
Higher percentage of positives on STAT-PAK and TST in the culture positive group than the culture negative group.
No culture negative Kruger lions were seropositive but some were TST reactive
Most culture positive lions had chronic disease consistent with bTB
Unexposed population was negative for culture, serology and TST; no disease for bTB on nx
Nontuberulosis mycobacteria may cause false positive - small percentage of TBLs with NTMs (culture) identified were positive on STAT-PAK but not on DPP. Some NTM culture negative still had positive STAT-PAK
STAT PAK sensitivity - 62.5% similar to other species
Take Home Message: STAT-PAK and DPP have a very high specificity (100% in this limited study). TST (cell mediated response) more sensitive than serology
Describe the utility of the single intradermal cervical test for TB in lions?
PERFORMANCE OF THE TUBERCULIN SKIN TEST IN MYCOBACTERIUM BOVIS–EXPOSED AND –UNEXPOSED AFRICAN LIONS (PANTHERA LEO)
Ignatius M. Viljoen, Tashnica Taime Sylvester, Sven D. C. Parsons, Robert P. Millar, Paul D. van Helden, Michele A. Miller
JWD 55(3), 2019
Compared tuberculin skin test results from lions in KNP to lions not exposed to M. bovis (captive)
Results not specific enough for captive lions, false positives up to 54%
SICT reduced the number of false positives in captive lions
Other tests for M. bovis:
Culture - relatively insensitive (cultured BAL samples)
Antigen-specific gene expression assay (GEA) - highly specific in lions
Conclusions: Single intradermal cervical test is not specific in lions
What clinicopathologic parameter serves as an early marker of CKD in cheetahs?
How does freezing impact samples?
Key Points:
SDMA did increase 5-40 months prior to CKD diagnosis based on BUN/Crea
SDMA: formed by intranuclear methylation of L-arginine by methyltransferases and released into circulation after proteolysis
Estimates renal clearance, good marker of GFR
Not affected by freeze-thaw
Once SDMA reference intervals are created, can use a single SDMA value to diagnose early CKD in cheetahs
Take Home Message: SDMA serves as an early marker of CKD in managed cheetahs and increases before BUN/Cr cheetahs with CKD.
Describe correlation of SDMA with GFR, creat, and BUN in healthy cheetahs?
Glomerular filtration rate determined by measuring serum clearance of a single dose of inulin and serum symmetric dimethylarginine concentration in clinically normal cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus)
Sanchez CR, Hayek LA, Carlin EP, Brown SA, Citino S, Marker L, Jones KL, Murray S.
Conclusions: SDMA not correlated with GFR, Creat, or BUN in healthy cheetahs.
NOTE:
Another study showed SDMA was highly correlated with creatinine in cheetahs and validated the IDEXX SDMA immuno assay. No ref intervals.
RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS AND VALIDATION OF SERUM SYMMETRIC DIMETHYLARGININE (SDMA) CONCENTRATIONS IN CHEETAHS (ACINONYX JUBATUS)
Lynnette Waugh, Shane Lyon, Gretchen A Cole, Jennifer D’Agostino, Julie Cross, Marilyn Strong-Townsend, Maha Yerramilli, Jun Li, Andrei Rakitin, Sean Hardy, João Brandão
J Zoo Wildl Med. 2018 Sep;49(3):623-631.
What differences were observed in wild lion clin path vs captive lions?
BRIDGING GAPS BETWEEN ZOO AND WILDLIFE MEDICINE: ESTABLISHING REFERENCE INTERVALS FOR FREE-RANGING AFRICAN LIONS (PANTHERA LEO)
Broughton HM, Govender D, Shikwambana P, Chappell P, Jolles A.
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine. 2017 Jun;48(2):298-311.
Wild lions (compared to captive lions) had:
Lower creatinine
Higher BUN
Older wild lions (compared to younger ones) had:
Decreased WBCs, ALP
Increased ALT, BUN
Male wild lions had higher PCV and leptin
Conclusions: Wild lions have a lower creatinine but a higher BUN than captive lions.
Compare and contrast cefovecin sodium PK in lions vs tigers
Pharmacokinetics after subcutaneous administration of a single dose of cefovecin sodium in African lions (Panthera leo).
Flaminio KP, Christensen JM, Alshahrani SM, Mohammed SM.
Am J Vet Res. 2019 Mar;80(3):230-234.
Conclusions: Cefovecin at 4 mg/kg and 8 mg/kg SC had very similar pharmacokinetics and are predicted to plasma concentrations above target MIC for 14 days. No adverse effects.
PHARMACOKINETIC PARAMETERS OF CEFOVECIN SODIUM (CONVENIA) IN CAPTIVE TIGERS (PANTHERA TIGRIS)
Andrew C. Cushing, Edward C. Ramsay, James Steeil, Sherry Cox
J. of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 48(4):1188-1192 (2017)
Appropriate plasma concentrations above MIC for 49 days!
Much longer than domestic cats and lions
No adverse effects
Conclusions: Convenia can be dosed q49 days in tigers, which is much longer than in domestic cats and lions
What parasite are captive pallas cats highly susceptible to?
Clinical signs?
Treatment of choice?
USE OF CLINDAMYCIN IN PALLAS’ CATS [OTOCOLOBUS (FELIS) MANUL] TO REDUCE JUVENILE TOXOPLASMOSIS-ASSOCIATED MORTALITY RATES
Girling SJ, Pizzi R, Naylor AD, Richardson D, Richardson U, Harley J, Cole G, Brown D, Fraser M, Tillman E, Barclay D.
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine. 2020 Mar;51(1):39-45.
Captive Pallas cats are highly susceptible to T. gondii
Fatal infections → systemic granulomatous disease and necrosis of lungs, liver, heart, spleen, pancreas,
Key Points:
Pregnant Pallas’ cats seropositive for T. gondii were treated with clindamycin
Kittens also treated at 3-4 weeks old
Mortality improved from 100% to 6%!
Other treatment options: diclazuril, toltrazuril/ponazuril
Conclusions: Prophylactic treatment of pregnant Pallas’ cat dams and their 3-4 week old kittens dramatically reduced Toxoplasma gondii-associated mortality.
What drug caused suspected adverse reactions when administered orally to captive cheetahs?
Clinical signs?
Suspected adverse reactions to oral administration of a praziquantel-pyrantel combination in captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus)
M. Whitehouse-Tedd PhD; Liesl Smith BSc; Jane A. Budd BVMS; Christopher G. Lloyd BVSc, MSc
JAVMA, November 15, 2017, Vol. 251, No. 10, Pages 1188-1195
Cheetahs with disease after praziquantel-pyrantel:
Signs within 4 hours of administration
Early sign = protruding nictitans
Progresses to ataxia, seizure, tremors, pulmonary hemorrhage, pyrexia +/- death
Conclusions: Praziquantel-pyrantel can cause fatal neurologic signs in cheetahs.
Compare and contrast tiger vs domestic cat immune responses to canary-pox vectored CDV vx.
TIGER (PANTHERA TIGRIS) AND DOMESTIC CAT ( FELIS CATUS) IMMUNE RESPONSES TO CANARYPOX-VECTORED CANINE DISTEMPER VACCINATION
McEntire M, Ramsay EC, Kania S, Prestia P, Anis E, Cushing AC, Wilkes RP.
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine. 2020 Jan;50(4):798-802..
Canarypox-vectored vaccine (PureVax) SC or oral in tigers did not produce protect tigers
PureVax SC produced protective titers in cats
No titers with oral administration
Conclusions: PureVax canine distemper virus administered subcutaneously is effective in domestic cats but not in tigers.
A recent study surveyed the use of canine distemper vaccines in nondomestic felids.
What was the most common vaccine used?
Which spp was most likely to seroconvert?
Which spp was least likely to seroconvert?
How many vaccines were recommended for seroconversion?
For animals that did seroconvert, how long did titers last?
Georoff, T. A., Ramsay, E. C., Gyimesi, Z. S., Kilburn, J. J., & Sykes IV, J. M. (2020). Review of canine distemper vaccination use and safety in north american captive large felids (panthera spp.) from 2000 to 2017. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 50(4), 778-789.
Abstract: Data on canine distemper virus (CDV) vaccination were collected on 812 large felids (351 tigers, Panthera tigris; 220 lions, Panthera leo; 143 snow leopards, Panthera uncia; 50 leopards, Panthera pardus; and 48 jaguars, Panthera onca) from 48 institutions to assess vaccine use and safety. The documented individual vaccination events with multiple products numbered 2,846. Canarypox-vectored CDV vaccines were the most commonly used vaccines (96.3% of all vaccinations) and the Purevax Ferret Distemper (PFD) vaccine was the most commonly used canarypox-vectored vaccine (91.0% of all vaccinations). Modified live virus (MLV) CDV vaccines were used for 3.7% of all vaccinations, and only in tigers, lions, and snow leopards. Adverse effects were reported after 0.5% (13 of 2,740) of the canarypox-vectored vaccinations and after 2.9% (3 of 104) of the MLV CDV vaccinations. This low complication rate suggests large felids may not be as sensitive to adverse effects of MLV CDV vaccines as other exotic carnivores. Serological data were available from 159 individuals (69 tigers, 31 lions, 31 snow leopards, 22 jaguars, and 6 Amur leopards, Panthera pardus orientalis) vaccinated with the PFD vaccine, and 66.0% of vaccinates seroconverted (defined as acquiring a titer 1 : 24) at some point post vaccination: 24.3% after one vaccination, 55.8% after two vaccinations, 54.3% after three vaccinations, and 79.2% after four or more vaccinations. Among animals exhibiting seroconversion after the initial PFD vaccinations, 88.9% still had titers 12 mo and 24 mo after the last vaccination, and 87.5% had titers 1 : 24 at 36 mo after the last vaccination. The study was unable to assess fully the safety of vaccination with either canarypox-vectored or MLV CDV vaccines during gestation because of the small number of animals vaccinated while pregnant (n 1⁄4 6, all vaccinated with PFD).
- CDV infection in large felids
- Acute to chronic resp, enteric, CNS signs
- Can be fatal
- Secondary infections common
- No treatment exists
- Prevention = vaccination
- Vaccine induced disease notable with MLV CDV vaccines → not recommended in nondomestic carnivores
-
Monovalent canarypox-vectored CDV = vaccine of choice in zoos
- Genetic material in canarypox vector → can’t replicate in mammalian cells
- Recent study comparing humoral response between canarypox and MLV vaccine in tigers → 2/6 animals seroconverted after canarypox series, titers less than after single injection with MLV
- Majority given IM
- Single major adverse event in snow leopard → CNS signs after MLV vaccine → resolved without intervention**/
-
Conversion
- Snow leopards → lowest rate of seroconversion
- Amur leopards and jaguars → highest rate of seroconversion
- Seroconversion after 4 canarypox vaccinations increased significantly compared to 1,2,3
- Single case reports of MLV induced disease tend to skew perception → low numbers in this study but adverse effect percent low
- Protective titers → debate over what is “protective”
- Can only be proven by virulent strain challenge → not ethical in most zoologic spp
- Multiple vaccinations needed to induce seroconversion in most cases
- Snow leopards lowest rate of seroconversion and highest percentage of titers in “indeterminate” (1:8, 1:16) range
Take home points: vaccination with MLV CDV does not seem to cause as many adverse effects as assumed, and no animals in this study had vaccine induced disease. Multiple doses of canarypox vectored CDV vaccines are necessary for seroconversion


















