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BFF > fauna part 2 > Flashcards

fauna part 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Class Mammalia - characters:

A
  • Have hair
  • Females lactate (produce milk) to feed young
  • Distinctive skeletal characteristics e.g. of jaw bones
  • Endothermic
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2
Q

three groups of mammals

A

Eutherians Monotremes Marsupials

There are no very large extant native land mammals in Australia

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3
Q

“Terrestrial” eutherians

A
  • Bats (79 spp.)
  • insectivorous bats
  • megabats (e.g flying foxes)
  • Dingo (arrived pre-Europeans,
    present for 7000-10,000 years)
  • Rodents: native rats & mice (approx. 56
    extant spp.)
    All relatively recent arrivals
    No large terrestrial eutherians in Australia
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4
Q

Marine Mammals (Eutherians) worldwide groups

A
  • Whales & dolphins (Cetacea)
  • Seals (Carnivora)
  • Dugongs (Sirenia)
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5
Q

species Monotremes (Prototheria)

A 
Platypus
(1 species)
Echidnas
(3 species: 1 in Aust.)
-only found in Aus and PNG
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6
Q

Monotremes are different to other mammals

– have unique characters

A

– some ancestral “reptilian” characters:
•Lay eggs (oviparous)
•Pectoral girdle and limbs “reptile-like”
Monotremes have electroreception (to locate prey)
• Specialised sensors in bill
•Detect very weak electrical fields (generated by muscle contraction in prey )

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7
Q

Marsupials

A
  • Viviparous (live bearing)
  • females carry young in their pouch
    Current world distribution of marsupials
    Oldest fossils in N America ~ 115 MYA
    Oldest fossils in Australia: ~ 55 MYA
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8
Q

Polyprotodont marsupials

A
  • multiple incisor Carnivores or omnivores (Australia, PNG & South America)
  • Bandicoots & bilbies
  • Marsupial carnivores (dasyurids)
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9
Q

Diprotodont marsupials

A
  • a pair of incisor (herbivores or omnivores)

wombats, koala, possums, kangaroos (macropods) etc.

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10
Q

Megafauna extinction: 50,000-20,000 y.a.

Late Pleistocene

A

Several hypotheses:
• Climate change – increasing aridity
• Habitat change by humans (fire)
• Over-hunting by humans

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11
Q

Prof Chris Johnson (2006)

- hypothesis on key factor driving extinction:

A
  • Abrupt collapse following human arrival
  • No role for climate change in decline
  • Not consistently linked to increased fire
  • Species that disappeared were those most demographically susceptible to over-harvest over-hunting by people
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12
Q

Recent mammalian extinctions

A

Australia has an amazing diversity of mammals
BUT
We have a very poor record of conserving smaller terrestrial sp. post European settlement
- 27 species already extinct
- many endangered (46)

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13
Q

Catastrophic decline of widespread mamal species

A

Burrowing bettong
-used to inhabit slope and shurb in high number
now: Extinct in Aus mainlain, there are some re-introduced pop
Brushed tail rabbit rat
-used to be numerous in Arnhem land, great population in lowland river
Now: localised and rare in Noutthern Aus- only two population

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14
Q

Causes of extinction - introduced mammals

are serious pests

A

Ecosystem degradation
• Competition with native species
• Predators on native species

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15
Q

Introduced mammals

A
  • Cat & fox (+ dingo??)
  • Horse & donkey
  • Buffalo, pig, goat, deer & camel
  • European rats & house mouse
  • Rabbit & hare
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16
Q

Dingo: a role in

conservation?

A
  • Persistence of smaller marsupials that have geographic overlap with dingos
  • Dingos may partly “control” foxes and cats ? (especially in more arid areas)
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17
Q

Mammal reproduction –the basics:

A

• Female mammals feed their young on milk, secreted by mammary glands
• The three mammal groups (monotremes, marsupials &eutherians) differ dramatically in their reproductive patterns
+ there is some variation in structure of the reproductive tract
However
There is also variation WITHIN groups

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18
Q

Generalised reproductive

system in female mammals

A

Corpus luteum- produce hormone and prepare the body for pregnancy
Ovary- produce egg
ovary duct- connect the ovary to the uterus
Uterus- formation of the young
-Mammary glands- produce milk

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19
Q

Variation in female mammal

reproductive tract structure

A

eutherian and monotherm have more in common

marsupial: reproductive track stay separate until the vagina separate uteria and vagina
utherian: pear-shaped uterus separate uteria and vagina
monotherm: y shaped uterus, platapus only have an active left ovary. share opening for digestive track and birth cannal

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20
Q

Monotremes reproduction

A 
• Lay eggs
- Hatch 10 – 14 days after laying
- Platypus 1-3 eggs: female remains in burrow (fasting)
- Echidna 1 egg: laid into pouch, female remains active (foraging etc.)
• Pouch
Platypus: no
Echidna: yes
• Both species are seasonal breeders
• No teats (milk is secreted through pores)
• Lactation:
- Platypus 3-4 months
- Echidna 6-7 months
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21
Q

Variation in behaviour: echidnas and platapus

A

s form a
“mating train” – female at the front,
males follow
Echidna young Left in burrow when they can thermoregulate & spines begin to form!!
Platypus mate in water
-they pass through each other, male will bite the female tail-> copulation position
-Females dig an extensive breeding burrow – up to 20m long
-stay and incubate- fasting
At emergence babies combined weight may be more than their mothers

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22
Q

Variation in Marsupials

A

Gestation in different sp.: 12 – 46 days
Marsupial teat # & litter size varies considerably
between species. Teats: 2 - 22
Atenchius
• Supernumerary young
• Teat number: 6 to 10 = can be geographic variation within species
Koala: 2 teats, generally only one young per breeding season
Marsupial pouch life also
varies: 1 – 11 months

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23
Q

Marsupial young after

permanent pouch exit:

A
  • May be left in nest, mother returns to suckle young
  • May be carried on back “back-young
  • May be “young-at-foot” accompanies mother
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24
Q

Antechinus reproduction

A

• Male testosterone levels extremely high prior to and
during breeding season
• Males aggressive, fight, constant mate-seeking behaviour - stop feeding!
• Prolonged and frequent copulation
• All males die from stress-related complications
• Males die before females give birth – no males in population for a period
• Males in captivity, deprived of mating, survive much longer

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25
Q

Marsupials: dramatic change in milk

composition during lactation

A 
• Early: tiny young
continuous sucking ( mouth fuse with tettes)
mammary gland small
dilute milk (mainly carbohydrates)
• Late: larger (more developed) young
intermittent sucking
mammary gland large
concentrated milk, higher in energy
(including more protein & fats)
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26
Q

Some kangaroos & wallabies

have simultaneous lactation

A 
Newborn +
• < 1g
• weak, continuous
sucking
• dilute milk
Young-at-foot
• > 1kg
• intermittent but strong
sucking
• Concentrated, energy
rich milk
produce milk for both, different type each teates
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27
Q

Embryonic diapause – a “production line”

in some marsupial species

A
  • Female mates within a day of giving birth
  • But embryo development stops at blastocyst stage due to feedback of sucking stimulus of young already in pouch
  • Embryo recommences development at weaning of older young – under hormone control
  • Some female kangaroo/wallaby species can have 3 “young” at different stages at any one time: one blastocyst (fertilized), one in pouch, one young-at- foot
  • Embryonic Diapause (an arrested blastocyst) occurs in most macropodids (kangaroos & wallabies), some small possums (also some eutherians e.g. seals).
28
Q

Eutherians reproduction

A
  • : longer gestation, more advanced young at birth (compared to marsupials & monotremes), shorter lactation (relative to gestation)
  • Much more variation in developmental stage of young at birth
  • milk composition relatively constant during lactation
29
Q

Mega bat reproduction

A

Compared to other small eutherians:
• Slower development, gestation longer (2 – 8 months)
• Litter size small: most bats 1 young/year
• Form maternity colonies before giving birth
• Large young – up to 30% of female weight!
• Initially: carry young, then left in nursery
• Must locate own offspring among many others in the “nursery” at the colony

30
Q

Marsupial vs eutherian placentation:

A

• Eutherians:
efficient allantoic placenta (respiration, nutrition, excretion)
• Most marsupials:
yolk-sac placenta (highly vascularised, but less efficient, however gestation very short)
• Peramelid marsupials (bandicoots): yolk-sac + allantoic form

31
Q

Key differences in mamal reproduction

A

Monotremes & Marsupials: lactation specialists (short gestation + long lactation)
Eutherians: gestation specialists (long gestation + short lactation)
Remember: variation within a groups & always some exceptions in biology

32
Q

marsupial reproductive strategies have advantages

A
  • Some species can have multiple young at different stages of development at the same time
  • Can stop investing in young early if environmental conditions deteriorate – thus overall lower energetic “cost” if they lose a young
  • Some species have embryonic diapause – can restart reproduction quickly if environmental conditions become favourable
  • Highly evolved character: variable milk composition throughout lactation
33
Q

All three ways of reproducing are successful in mamal

A
  • Outdated view of marsupials & monotremes as “inferior” – comes from human and northern hemisphere perspective focusing on eutherian mammals
  • Monotremes and marsupials also have highly successful reproductive strategies
34
Q

Terrestrial Invertebrate Phyla

A 
Platyhelminthes: flatworms
Nematoda: roundworms
Annelida: segmented worms
Arthropoda: insects etc.
largest group/highest diversity
Onychophora: velvet worms
Mollusca: snails etc.
90% of the worlds species are
probably invertebrates
35
Q

P: Platyhelminthes:

flatworms

A
  • Distinct “head end”
  • Dorso-ventrally flattened in transverse section
  • Free living: Some flatworms are brightly coloured
  • Parasitic: e.g. tapeworm from vertebrate digestive tract (scolex the hook used for identification) Many have complex life cycles with multiple hosts
36
Q

Phylum: Nematoda (roundworms)

A

very large group of worms
Also bilaterally symmetrical
Body cylindrical i.e. round intransverse section
some free-living, mostly parasitic

37
Q

Phylum: Nematomorpha

Gordian Worms

A

• Threadlike free-living adults
• Larvae parasitic in spiders, crickets, mantids etc
- cyst infect egg of insect in the water
-tropotically transmitted
- eat the organ of the final host influence them to jump into water

38
Q

Phylum: Annelida - segmented worms

A
  • more complex body structure

- Segmentation: repeats of structures

39
Q

Annelida – 1. earthworms:

A
  • have a nervous system
  • hermaphroditic: have both female & male reproductive organs
  • free-living: require moist soils
  • important role in soil health and nutrient recycling
  • feed on live and dead organic matter
  • mix & aerate the soil via burrowing activity, create tunnels & as they move they force air through these + tunnels assist water infiltration
  • Occur in lower abundance in disturbed environments – loss will impact soil health
40
Q

Annelids cont: 2. leeches (parasitic)

A
  • Leech questing for a host . wait and reach out to signal

- Some species thought to transmit pathogens when they attach

41
Q

Phylum: Arthropoda:

A 
largest invertebrate group in terrestrial systems
Key unifying characters:
exoskeleton (external)
&
jointed legs
42
Q

Sub Phylum: Chelicerata

A

(no antennae):spiders, mites, ticks & scorpions

- powerful jaws

43
Q

Spiders

A

many are active hunters and some have venom to subdue or kill their prey
large number of venomous spiders
in Australia ex Female red-back spiders are small and numerous in urban environment and Sydney funnel web: male is potentially deadly to humans (more toxic and wanders to find female)
some sp. exhibit maternal care: female carrying her young!!

44
Q

Sub Phylum Crustacea:

A
  • 2 pair antennae
  • branched legs
    e.g.: - slater (pill bug), land
    “yabbies”, land crabs etc.
45
Q

Arthropods cont.

Sub Phylum Myriapoda:

A

1 pair antennae, many pairs of unbranched

legs - centipedes, millipedes

46
Q

Sub Phylum: Hexapoda - insects:

A

butterflies, moths, ants, beetles etc.

amazing diversity in morphology & ecology

47
Q

Onychophora (velvet worms)

A
  • early lineage links to arthropods
  • Fleshy legs, not jointed
  • small & cryptic, little variation in body plan
  • mtDNA & micro satellite studies: found a # of divergent groups!
  • viviparous
  • Birth defects in a velvet worm due to “out-breeding depression”
  • low fertility & 5% of young have birth defects, e.g. missing legs
48
Q

P: Mollusca

A
  • Most diverse phylum after arthropoda
  • Mantle – may secrete a shell. Muscular and contains cavity used for respiration, excretion and sometimes feeding and locomotion
49
Q

Origins of Australian invertebrate fauna

A

Invertebrate fossils in SA: 600MY
Godwana group
Asian elements e.g. bird eating spiders
Archaic element: descendants of widespread Pangean groups, primitive cockroaches, scorpion flies, velvet worms

50
Q

Ant Diversity

A 
Extremely diverser in :
* Morphological
* Ecology / life-history
* Number of species / taxa
World Australia
Subfamilies
16 10
Genera 300 103
Species 15,000* 1275* estimate to be around 4000
51
Q

Ant habitats:

A 
Alpine zone
Temperate woodlands
Arid zone
Alpine zone
Temperate woodlands
Wet-dry tropics
Ant diversity (# of Genera): highest diversity east coast Qld & NSW
52
Q

Dietary niches of ant

A
  • predators
  • scavengers
  • seed harvesters (quite common in Aust.)
53
Q

Ant sociality

A

Ant sociality:
* Colonial & highly cooperative
* Castes:• Queen: 1/ nest
• Workers: very large numbers (100s - 10s of 1000s)
• Males: never functional part of colony, mate
and die
Female larvae:
• develop into sterile workers & soldiers (driven by chemical signals from the queen)
• if queen absent, or if nest very large, some larvae develop into queens

54
Q

Communication and cooperation in ants

A

occur through hormone and stroking of antenate

55
Q

Ant nests

A

central to colony function
Meat Ant nest: can be very large
colonies – 10s of 1000s of individuals

56
Q

Lycaenid butterfly:

mutualism with ants

A

Mutualism: Lycaenid butterfly larvae on Acacia foliage, tended & defended by ants

  • Caterpillars that are tended by ants occur on Acacia foliage, which is relatively high in nitrogen
  • Secretions from these caterpillars contain sugars & amino acids (nitrogen rich) which ants harvest
57
Q

Termites

A

Termites are a very diverse (species rich), widespread & abundant invertebrate group in Australia

  • Very small: thus total food/ energy needs low
  • Invertebrates = ectotherms = lower energy requirements than vertebrates
  • Nest maintained at even temp & high humidity: lowers water stress, assists in feeding on food with low water content
  • Store food: assists in avoiding food shortages, e.g. during drought
58
Q

Termite diversity

A

World Australia
Families: 7 5
Species: 2300 348 (15%)

59
Q

Termite also have castes

A

Workers:
sterile
females &
males

60
Q

Termite colonies

A

Termite colonies function around their nest (can’t survive alone – similar to ants).
Termites actively maintain temp & humidity in nest
Colony size varies with species
- from a few 100 to several million individuals!!
Termite nests may be in trees, with tunnels built on the trunk to allow access to the ground
“Above ground” termite mounds (very obvious)
BUT: most species nest in timber or underground

61
Q

Termite diet:

A

Termite diet: live & dead plant
material: grass, timber, etc.
Food: often poor quality & may have very low water content
Potential issue: plant material contains structural components such as cellulose (digestion will yield sugars) but animals lack cellulases to digest this
Trichonympha, a symbiotic protist, lives in the gut of termites, and has cellulases and can digest cellulose

62
Q

Termites: Ecologically important role

in nutrient recycling

A

Termites enrich soils with nitrogen & phosphates
- carry their food back to the nest, thus soil immediately around the termite mound/nest is gradually enriched with N and P
- over time this is redistributed into surrounding soils
Particularly important role in nutrient cycling in northern Australia
- pronounced wet-dry seasons & low nutrient soils.
- This system can’t support large numbers of endothermic grazers with high energy needs
Termites recycle up to 20% of carbon in tropical systems

63
Q

Habitat fragments

A
  • Patches and linear remnants of varying size, connectivity & spacing
  • Composition: remnants of original vegetation, species mix & age of vegetation variable
64
Q

Cockroaches:Habitat fragments

A
  • Some species with limited mobility
  • Research: comparison of populations in large intact forest patches vs small fragments
  • Findings: changes in genetic structure of populations over very short time periods (20 years) in fragmented landscapes
  • Important message for biodiversity consn
    : importance of understanding of biodiversity & health of invertebrate populations
65
Q

Invertebrate conservation programs:

Eltham copper butterfly, Victoria

A
  • Habitat: woodlands with understory of sweet bursaria lay eggs on this shrub
  • Caterpillars shelter in ant nests near base of shrub during the day, move up to feed on leaves at night & are guarded by the ants, which feed on caterpillar sugar secretions
  • Butterflies only found in areas with this genus of ants Eltham copper butterfly, Victoria
  • Listed in Vic as vulnerable to extinction – is rare & declining
  • Threats: isolation, habitat destruction, fire, pests Remaining populations in only 3 regions in Vic
66
Q

Invertebrate conservation programs:

Lord Howe Island Phasmid (stick insect)

A
  • Very old group
  • 15 cm long
  • Flightless
  • Nocturnal
  • Parthenogenic
    Rarest insect in the world?
    Known only from pre 1918, from Lord Howe Island:
    thought to be extinct
    Threatening process: introduction of rats (feral) onto Lord Howe Island from a shipwreck in 1918
    Balls Pyramid, off Lord Howe Island, Australia: the last refuge of the Lord Howe Island Phasmid
  • Dead specimens discovered 1960s
  • Rediscovered live, 2001
67
Q

Conservation program goals to save

the Lord Howe Island Phasmid:

A
  • Captive breeding program, Taronga & Melbourne Zoos (parthenogenic character assists conservation)
  • Eradication of rats from Lord Howe Is.
  • Aim: reintroduction of phasmids to original habitat
    • Hatching of more phasmids at Melbourne Zoo. Now managed in large greenhouses, free-ranging: breeding success has increased: now approx 500 individuals.
    • Classified under Australian Commonwealth Government legislation: EPBC Act
    • Conservation issue raised in NSW Parliament!
    • Reintroductions to Lord Howe Island from 2007 onward

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