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Y4 Farm Reproduction > Farm animal abortion > Flashcards

Farm animal abortion Flashcards

1
Q

Abortion definition

A

= birth before full term, of a dead or non-viable foetus

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2
Q

Stillbirth definition

A

= birth at full term, of a dead or non-viable foetus

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3
Q

Bovine abortion definition

A

= Expulsion of a foetus between the completion of differentiation (day 42) and the limit of foetal independent viability (day 265)

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4
Q

Why investigate abortions?

A

Economic impacts – calf, milk, AI, feed etc.

Wider significance or an easily solved problem?
▪ Public Health – zoonoses e.g. Salmonellosis
▪ Neospora – nearby footpaths
▪ Poor nutrition

Statutory Requirement – Brucellosis Order
▪ The legislation requires anyone in charge of bovine animals to report any abortion or premature calving (<271 days after service or <265 after implantation whether calf is dead or alive) within 24 hours.
▪ Suspicion of Brucella abortus must be reported to APHA in the same way as other notifiable diseases.
▪ Officially Brucellosis Free since 1985
▪ Scotland outbreak - 2003
▪ Cornwall outbreak – 2004

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5
Q

Is abortion the main cause of reproductive failure in cattle?

A
  • no
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6
Q

What % of reproductive losses occur at <21d?

A
  • ~75%
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7
Q

Approach to abortion cases

A
  • history
  • sampling
  • list differentials (infectious vs non-infectious)
  • biosecurity and zoonoses
  • control/tx plan
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8
Q

Approach to abortion cases - history

A

▪ Individual vs multiple animals affected?
▪ Clinical signs in dams?
▪ Farm history
– Closed vs open? Recent purchases?
– Vaccination status?
– Recent management/diet changes?
– Previous test results/herd disease status – Current husbandry policies
▪ Foetus quality
▪ Decide an intervention figure
– Sporadic cases are less likely to be investigated & more likely to be non-infectious
– >3%?

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9
Q

Approach to abortion cases - sampling

A
  • serology
  • PM on foetus
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10
Q

Abortion diagnoses in cattle

A
  • most diagnosed causes of abortion are infectious, but diagnostic rate is low
  • Fetopathy/congenital disease - BVD 0.85%
  • Salmonella NOS 0.35%
  • Leptospira 0.10%
  • IBR 0.06%
  • Chlamydophila abortus 0.03%
  • Salmonella Mbandaka 0.01%
  • E. coli 0.68%
  • Campylobacter NOS 0.51%
  • S. Typhimurium 0.03%
  • Traumatocia 0.12%
  • Fungi NOS 1.17%
  • Listeria 0.87%
  • Schmallenberg virus 0.67%
  • Coxiella burnetii 0.12%
  • Dystokia 1.28%
  • Bacillus licheniformis 2.07%
  • Trueperella pyogenes 2.15%
  • Diagnosis not listed 2.90%
  • Neospora 2.98%
  • S. dublin 2.99%
  • Diagnosis not reached 80.06%
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11
Q

Abortion diagnoses in sheep

A
  • S. Montevideo 0.79%
  • Trueperella pyogenes 0.51%
  • S. dublin 0.42%
  • Fungi NOS 0.12%
  • Bacillus licheniformis 0.30%
  • Coxiella burnetii 0.06%
  • S. Typhimurium 0.00%
  • Yersinia spp. 0.43%
  • Dystokia 1.01%
  • Schmallenberg virus 1.71%
  • Salmonella NOS 0.91%
  • Listeria 1.95%
  • Diagnosis not reached 49.76%
  • Diagnosis not listed 4.44%
  • Campylobacter NOS 8.17%
  • Toxoplasma 11.73%
  • Chlamydophila abortus 17.69%
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12
Q

Why are diagnostic rates low?

A

▪ Non-infectious causes
▪ Cost
▪ Limited farm history & data
▪ Sample quality & quantity
– No placenta
– Bacterial contaminant overgrowth
– Autolysis
– Cattle – time to abort
▪ Laboratory test limitations – only so many things can be tested for
▪ Sampling bias – some farmers sample every abortion, some only with a disaster

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13
Q

Manage expectations

A

▪ Foetus quality
▪ Client aims
– Decide an intervention figure
-> Sporadic cases are less likely to be investigated & more likely to be non- infectious
-> Intervention level 3 - 5% for outbreaks?
– Farm history – closed
-> Vaccinations
-> Dam Health
-> Previous test results
-> Herd disease status
-> Current husbandry policies
▪Current controls
▪ Previous investigations

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14
Q

Non-infectious causes

A

common in cattle, but difficult to prove
- Hereditary disorders/congenital defects
- Toxins
- Trauma
- Toxic
- Iatrogenic
- Concurrent dz

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15
Q

Non-infectious causes - hereditary disorders/congenital defects

A
  • complex vertebral malformation
  • dyschondroplasia
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16
Q

Non-infectious causes - toxins

A
  • ergot
  • nitrates/nitrites
  • brassicae
  • mycotoxins
  • hemlock
  • heavy metals
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17
Q

Non-infectious causes - trauma

A
  • kick/crush injuries or transport
  • hyperthermia
  • twinning
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18
Q

Non-infectious causes - nutritional

A
  • severe starvation
  • pregnancy toxaemia
  • vit A
  • iodine
  • selenium
  • manganese
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19
Q

Non-infectious causes - iatrogenic

A
  • prostaglandin
    – endogenous (stress), inflammation, pyrexia; exogenous
  • dexamethasone
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20
Q

Non-infectious causes - concurrent dz

A
  • liver fluke
  • pneumonia
  • Johne’s
  • lungworm
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21
Q

Infectious causes in cattle - viral

A

▪ BVD
▪ IBR – BoHV-1
▪ Schmallenberg virus
▪ Bluetongue virus (NOTIFIABLE)

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22
Q

Infectious causes in cattle - Bacterial/Rickettsia

A

▪ Brucellosis (NOTIFIABLE & ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL)
▪ Leptospirosis (ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL)
▪ Salmonellosis (ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL)
▪ Bacillus licheniformis
▪ Listeria spp. (ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL)
▪ Coxiella burnetti (Q Fever) (ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL)

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23
Q

Infectious causes in cattle - fungal

A
  • Aspergillus
  • Absidia
  • Rhizopus
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24
Q

Infectious causes in cattle - protozoal

A
  • Neospora caninum
  • Trichomoniasis
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25
Q

Infectious causes in cattle - sporadic causes

A

▪ Trueperella pyogenes
▪ E. coli (ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL)
▪ Histophilus somni
▪ TB (NOTIFIABLE & ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL)

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26
Q

Infectious causes in sheep - viral

A

▪ Border disease
▪ Bluetongue virus (NOTIFIABLE)
▪ Schmallenberg virus

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27
Q

Infectious causes in sheep - Bacterial/Rickettsia

A

▪ Chlamydophila abortus
▪ Campylobacter fetus fetus, Campylobacter jejuni
▪ Listeria spp.
▪ Salmonellosis
▪ Leptospirosis
▪ Brucellosis (NOTIFIABLE)
▪ Coxiella burnetti (Q Fever) – Rickettsia
▪ Tick Borne Fever - Anaplasma phagocytophilum

^ all bar tick borne fever have zoonotic potential

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28
Q

Infectious causes in sheep - protozoal

A
  • Toxoplasma gondii (ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL)
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29
Q

Fresh sampling

A

▪ Placenta – cotyledon and surrounding membrane
– Detect fungi, C. abortus, C. burnetti, Brucella abortus
– Toxoplasma PCR

▪ Foetal stomach contents
– Bacteriology – aseptic
– Direct culture and selective culture (Salmonella,
Campylobacter, Brucella)

▪ Foetal fluid
– ‘Plain’ tube – serology
– BVD Ab/Ag, BDV Ab, Neospora Ab, Leptospirosis Ab, SBV Ab

▪ Lung
– can be used for culture

▪ Spleen
– BVD or BDV PCR

▪ Liver
– BoHV-1
– Trace mineral analysis

▪ Thyroid
– Iodine

▪ Hindbrain
– SBV PCR

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30
Q

Sampling to be fixed in formalin

A

▪ Placenta
▪ Brain
▪ Lung
▪ Trachea
▪ Liver
▪ Spleen
▪ Kidney
▪ Thyroid
▪ Heart

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31
Q

Sampling - maternal blood (paired?)

A

▪ Cattle serology
– BVDV (and PCR)
– Lepto
– Neospora
– IBR
– SBV

▪ Ovine serology
– EAE
– Toxoplasma
– Border disease (and PCR)
– SBV

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32
Q

Neospora caninum

A

▪ Protozoal parasite
▪ Canines are the definitive host but vertical transmission much more common

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33
Q

Neospora caninum transmission

A

Exogenous transmission
- Canine ingestion of tissue cysts e.g. in placenta
→ oocysts passed in faeces
→contaminate feed/water
→sporozoites in the intestinal tract
→tachyzoites in neural tissue, macrophages, hepatic cells, placenta, and others
→ bradyzoites primarily in neural tissue
▪ Vertical transmission from tachyzoites, via the placenta → foetus

Endogenous transmission
- Previously/persistently infected cow has reactivation of tissue
cysts

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34
Q

Signs of neospora caninum

A

▪ Abortion typically at 4-7 months but can cause resorptions, mummification, stillbirth, or may be born alive and persistently infected +/- congenital CNS disease
▪ Persistently infected calves grow to become persistently infected cows → 40-50% abort in their first year, or results in vertical transmission

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35
Q

Neospora caninum diagnosis

A

▪ Serology in cows
– Negative – rules out Neospora
– Positive – not diagnostic as not definitely the cause
-> If positive, statistically they are 6-7 times more likely to abort than those that are not
-> Antibody levels tend to be highest 10 to 4 weeks before calving

▪ PCR on foetal brain

▪ Histopathology +/- IHC on fixed brain

36
Q

Neospora caninum prevention

A

▪ Infected dog faeces
▪ Remove access to placental material
▪ Test purchased cattle
▪ Avoid retaining breeding heifers born from seropositive cows
▪ Test and cull cows

37
Q

Bovine Viral Diarrhoea (BVD)

A

▪ Pestivirus – BVDV-1 and BVDV-2 (BVDV-2 only really in the USA)
▪ Cytopathic and non-cytopathic strains

38
Q

How BVD affects different stages of pregnancy

A

Infected cow → infected foetus
▪ Abortion can occur at any point in gestation (usually 1st/2nd trimester)
▪ 0-30 days – infertility or early embryonic death
▪ 18-125 days – PI calves
▪ 80-150 days – congenital defects e.g. cerebellar hypoplasia, cataracts, hydrocephalus etc.
▪ >150 days – the calf can launch an immune response and often survives

39
Q

BVD Trojan cow

A

= non-PI cow carrying a PI calf
▪ Cow is antibody negative

40
Q

BVD diagnosis

A
  • lack of characteristic PM lesions
    ▪ PCR, antigen and antibody testing available
    ▪ PI calf – antigen positive, antibody negative
    ▪ PCR on aborted calf tissue (spleen often used)
    ▪ Antigen or antibody testing on blood (avoid antibody testing on post-colostral neonatal calves)
    ▪ Antigen/PCR testing on tissue in live animals e.g. ear tag
41
Q

BVD control

A
  • routine herd testing
  • culling PIs
  • vaccination
42
Q

2 main types of Leptospira

A
  • Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar Hardjo
  • Leptospira interrogans serovar Hardjo
43
Q

Are cattle at a higher risk of leptospirosis if grazing with sheep?

A
  • yes
44
Q

Leptospirosis CS

A
  • infertility
  • abortion usually >6m
  • premature calves
  • milk drop
45
Q

Leptospirosis control & tx

A

▪ Vaccination
▪ Antibiotics – streptomycin, dihydrostreptomycin, oxytetracycline, amoxicillin ▪ Avoid grazing with sheep

46
Q

Leptospirosis diagnosis

A

▪ usually no gross PM lesions
▪ PCR on foetal kidney, lung, or placenta
▪ Histopathology – foetal interstitial nephritis is pathognomonic
▪ Maternal serology – can be difficult to interpret
– Titres are often in decline by the time of abortion as abortion often occurs weeks to months after maternal infection
– Better used as a screening tool for the presence of lepto in the herd

47
Q

Salmonella spp. in cattle

A

▪ PrimarilyS.Dublin- ~80%

48
Q

Salmonella (cattle) CS

A

▪ Sporadic cause of abortion +/- dysentery and pyrexia in cows

49
Q

Salmonella (cattle) - how is it introduced?

A
  • introduction of carrier animals or contamination of feed/water
50
Q

Salmonella (cattle) diagnosis

A
  • culture from foetal stomach contents
    ▪ Serology may be useful, but titres fall rapidly after abortions
    ▪ Faecal culture from the dam has low sensitivity
    ▪ Cows that abort shed for a very short period of time compared to enteric cases where there is intermittent or continuous shedding
51
Q

Salmonella (cattle) prevention

A
  • vaccination
  • destroy contaminated bedding
  • isolate cows until vaginal discharge stops
52
Q

Salmonella spp. in sheep

A

▪ Multiple strains - all, except S. abortusovis, are zoonotic

53
Q

Salmonella (sheep) CS

A

▪ Ewes may be ill e.g. scour, metritis

▪ S. abortusovis
– few clinical signs other than abortion in the last 6 weeks of gestation
– Lambs may be born alive but die within the first week of life

▪ S. montevideo
– few clinical signs other than abortion
– no diarrhoea in lambs

▪ S. typhimurium
– pyrexia, anorexia
– profuse scour in ewes with foul smelling vaginal discharge
– May be fatal
– Lambs not aborted may be born stillbirth, or born alive and die soon after with evidence of scour
– Outbreaks often follow times of stress

▪ S. Dublin
– clinical signs similar to S. typhimurium but usually not as severe

54
Q

Salmonella (sheep) diagnosis

A
  • culture of foetal stomach contents
55
Q

Salmonella (sheep) tx

A
  • treat ewes with a sensitive antibiotic if necessary
56
Q

Salmonella (sheep) prevention

A
  • vaccination
  • isolate aborted ewes
  • avoid stress
57
Q

Campylobacter spp. in cattle

A
  • Campylobacter fetus subsp. venerealis
  • Campylobacter fetus subsp. fetus

Both ^ cause abortions in cattle around 4-8m of gestation

58
Q

Campylobacter fetus subsp. venerealis

A

▪ Cause of infertility and embryonic death primarily, associated with a mucopurulent endometritis
▪ Occasionally abortion at 4-8 months
▪ Venereal transmission
▪ Cows – fertility returns after 4-8 months once the uterus recovers
▪ Bulls – may recover or be infected for life. The older the bull, the more likely to be persistently infected

59
Q

Campylobacter fetus subsp. venerealis - diagnosis

A

▪ Culture from vaginal washes or preputial scrapings/washes – difficult to culture successfully
▪ Vaginal Mucous Agglutination Test – picks up ~50% of positive cows
▪ Serology – very poor humoral response to venereal infection so of little value

60
Q

Campylobacter fetus subsp. fetus

A

▪ Found in the intestinal tract → faeco-oral transmission
▪ Placental lesions – necrosis, intercotyledonary thickening and oedema, yellow-brown cotyledons
▪ Placental culture is difficult due to other contaminants overgrowing
– Foetal stomach contents – Campylobacter enrichment cultures

61
Q

Campylobacter spp. in sheep

A

▪ Campylobacter fetus fetus – from carrier sheep
▪ C. jejuni from wildlife vectors
▪ Faeco-oral transmission → ewe to ewe transmission

62
Q

Campylobacter spp. in sheep CS

A

▪ infection→abortion 7-25 days later, followed by strong immunity
▪ Abortion in the last 6 weeks of gestation and weak lambs born alive.
▪ May see diarrhoea as well as abortions.
▪ Up to 25% of ewes may abort in naïve flocks.
▪ Very few clinical signs in ewes other than abortion initially, though metritis may develop
▪ Aborted material is infectious
▪ Venereal spread not a feature (as in cattle – Campylobacter fetus venerealis)
▪ Can see waves of disease every 4-5 years as immunity wanes in individuals and through addition of naïve animals to the flock.

63
Q

Campylobacter spp. in sheep diagnosis

A

▪ Placenta may have intercotyledonary oedema and cotyledonary necrosis
▪ Foetal livers may have multifocal areas of grey necrotic foci – pathognomonic
▪ Culture – foetal stomach contents (or placenta, or liver)
▪ Serology – not useful

64
Q

Campylobacter spp. in sheep tx & prevention/control

A

▪ Antibiotics generally not effective
▪ Vaccines not licensed in the UK; serotype distributions in NZ are different to UK
▪ Some people will mix aborted ewes with lambed ewes to generate immunity

65
Q

Toxoplasma gondii

A

▪ Protozoal parasite – infection is through ingestion of oocysts shed in cat faeces
▪ Zoonotic
▪ Cats are definitive host – sheep (and other mammals) are intermediate hosts
– Oocysts may survive for up to 2 years on pasture, feed, or bedding
– Up to 1 million oocysts per gram of cat faeces; as few as 200 needed to infect a ewe

66
Q

Toxoplasma gondii CS

A

▪ Infection in non-pregnant sheep is usually asymptomatic but results in immunity.
▪ Ewes remain persistently infected for life but are immune so unlikely to abort again.
▪ Causes infertility, mummification, stillbirth and abortion depending on stage of gestation and infective dose.
▪ <60 days → foetal resorption → high barren rate if ram has been removed
▪ Mid-gestation → abortion or mummification
▪ >120 days → stillbirth, weak lambs, or normal lambs

67
Q

Toxoplasma gondii diagnosis

A

– ‘frosted strawberry’ cotyledons
▪ Intercotyledonary areas unaffected (c.f. C. abortus) ▪ PCR – placenta
▪ Foetal serology – foetal fluid
▪ Maternal serology – antibodies can remain elevated for years (paired?)

68
Q

Toxoplasma gondii control

A
  • retain aborted ewes
  • keep old neutered cats on farm
  • vaccinate
69
Q

Chlamydia abortus (EAE)

A
  • Gram negative intracellular bacteria
  • > 80% of outbreaks are from the purchase of infected ewes
  • Bacteria are present in aborted material and venereal fluids, and can survive for weeks
70
Q

Chlamydia abortus (EAE) CS/presentation

A
  • Ewes infected early in pregnancy may abort this year. If non-pregnant or in late gestation (~>100d), they lie dormant until the next pregnancy.
  • Results in late-term placentitis and abortion typically in the last 3 weeks of gestation.
  • Some ewes become carriers and may excrete organism in their faeces.
71
Q

Chlamydia abortus (EAE) diagnosis

A

▪ Ewes are not ill
▪ Intercotyledonary areas are thickened, leathery, and oedematous
▪ Necrosis of foetal cotyledons
▪ May get birth of weak lambs
▪ Smears from intercotyledonary areas are stained with a modified ZN stain → intracellular cocci seen
▪ Serology – maternal or foetal fluids

72
Q

Chlamydia abortus (EAE) control

A
  • retain ewes
  • biosecurity
  • vaccinate
  • antibiosis?
73
Q

Antibiotic usage for cases of EAE

A
  • Oxytetracycline can help maintain the placenta in infected ewes to allow lambs to be born alive
  • Must be given after 90 days (when the placenta starts to deteriorate) and before day 126 (3 weeks before lambing)
  • If there are ewes 6-8 weeks off lambing (day 91-105) a dead vaccine (Inmeva) could be used. (Inmeva not recommended during last month of gestation)
  • If <3 weeks from lambing, they may pick up C. abortus this year and abort next year.
  • Can give live vaccine pre-tupping next year (will reduce abortions by ~50% in ‘pre-programmed’ ewes, but not prevent), or use antibiotics at day 91-126 in next gestation.
  • Once a fully implemented vaccination protocol is in place antibiotics shouldn’t be required
74
Q

General advice for abortions - immediate actions

A

▪ Isolate ewe (not required for toxo but a sensible precaution)
▪ Dispose of (if not being sampled) aborted material
▪ Treat systemic disease e.g. Salmonellosis
▪ Don’t foster on lambs (esp. ewe lambs that may be kept as replacements) to affected ewes (EAE risk)
▪ Mark ewes so that they can be identified for serology at a later date if required.
▪ Maintain good hygiene and biosecurity.
▪ Take disease specific actions e.g. prevent feed access for wild birds with C. jejuni
▪ Highlight zoonotic risk to farmer

75
Q

General advice for abortions - future actions

A

▪ EAE – purchase accredited disease-free stock and keep separate until after first lambing
▪ Toxo – prevent transmission via the definitive host, i.e. keep cats out of feed stores.
▪ Vaccinate – EAE, Toxoplasmosis, Campylobacter (import), Salmonella abortusovis
29

76
Q

Vaccinations

A

Enzovax (MSD)
- live attenuated
- indications
– replacements >5m/o
– recommended to vaccinate between 4m and 1m before tupping
– many be administered with Toxovax at different sites
- duration: at least 3y

Cevac Chlamydia (Ceva):
- live attuenated
- indications
– replacements >5m/o
– recommended to vaccinate between 4m and 1m before tupping
– many be administered with Toxovax at different sites
- duration: not stated

Inmeva (Hip):
- inactivated
- indications:
– 2 doses, 3w apart, the 1st at least 5w before tupping
– can be used during pregnancy
– not recommended in the last month of pregnancy
- duration: annual booster 2w before mating required

Toxovax (MSD)
- live tachyzoites
- indications:
– replacements >5m/o
– should be vaccinated in the period from 4m to 3w prior to tupping
– may be given with live attenuated EAE vaccine at different sites
- duration: at least 2y

Live EAE or Toxo vaccine should not be used by women of childbearing age or immunocompromised individuals.

77
Q

Schmallenberg virus

A
  • An orthobunyavirus – spread mainly by culicoides midges affecting cattle and sheep
78
Q

Schmallenberg virus CS

A

▪ May see pyrexia, diarrhoea, anorexia, milk drop
▪ Abortion and stillbirth, with congenital defects
– Arthrogryposis most common defect
– Neurological defects – hydrancephaly, hydrocephalus,
cerebellar hypoplasia, porencephaly
-> Think BTV.

79
Q

Schmallenberg virus diagnosis

A
  • limb defects are indicative ▪ Confirmation by PCR on brain
    ▪ Serology – maternal or foetal
80
Q

Schmallenberg virus control

A

▪ Difficult – fly repellents or altering breeding season to avoid
vectors
▪ Dams develop long-lasting immunity

81
Q

Why can concurrent disease cause abortion?

A
  • due to stress and PG release
82
Q

What is the most common cause of infectious abortion in cattle globally?

A
  • Neospora caninum
83
Q

Which species are asymptomatic carriers of leptospirosis?

A
  • Sheep
84
Q

Do you often have to treat leptospirosis?

A
  • no
85
Q

How does salmonella spread through herd?

A
  • through discharge, placental material
86
Q

What to do when PM calf for Schmallenberg virus

A
  • remove brain for sampling and big hydrocephalus or fluid filled cavity
  • have statutory requirement to notify APHA for potential testing for bluetongue as also causes these

Y4 Farm Reproduction (11 decks)

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