Families and Households: Demography Flashcards
1
Q
What is demography?
A
- The study of populations and their characteristics including: Population size, growth, and decline, and age structure.
2
Q
In 1801 Britain had a population of
A
10.5 million.
3
Q
By 1901 Britain had a population of
A
37 million, today it is 65 million.
4
Q
Until the 1980s UK population growth was largely the product of
A
natural change - the result of there being more births than deaths. However since the 1980s, most of the growth has come from net migration.
5
Q
Immigration
A
When people enter a country from elsewhere and integrate into its society. This leads to a population increase.
6
Q
Emigration
A
How many people leave the country to live elsewhere (causing population decrease).
7
Q
Birth rate
A
The number on live births per 1000 of the population per year.
8
Q
What happened from 1900 until 2001?
A
There was a long-term decline in birth rates, but the birth rate has been increasing again.
9
Q
When did birth rates peak?
A
2012 at 12.8, the highest since 1971.
10
Q
Factors determining birth rate
A
The proportion of women who are of childbearing age (15-44).
How fertile they are - that is, how many children they have.
11
Q
Total fertility rate (TFR)
A
The average number of children women will have during their fertile years. Despite this rising since 2001 to 1.94 in 2012 from an all time low of 1.63, it is still far lower than its peak of 2.95 children in 1964 (the 60s baby boom). In 2014 it was 1.83
12
Q
Changes in fertility and birth rates reflect the fact that:
A
More UK born women are remaining childless than in the past.
Women are postponing having children - average age for giving birth now 30 and fertility rates for women in their 30s and 40s are now on the increase. Nevertheless, they have fewer fertile years remaining so produce fewer children.
13
Q
Reasons for decline in birth rate 1900-2001:
Changes in the position of women
A
Major changes in the 20th century including:
-Legal equality with men, including right to vote.
Increased educational opportunities - girls now do better at school than boys.
-More women in paid employment, plus laws outlawing unequal pay and sex discrimination.
-Changes in attitudes to family life and women’s role.
Easier access to divorce.
-Access to abortion and reliable, giving women more control over their fertility.
14
Q
Harper (2012)
A
Argues education of women is the most important reason for the long-term fall in birth and fertility rates. Argues it has led to a change in mindset for women, resulting in fewer children. Educated women are most likely to use family planning and see other possibilities in life apart from the traditional housewife and mother. Many choose to delay childbearing, or not have children at all, in order to pursue a career.
15
Q
In 2012 one in five women aged
A
45 were childless, double the number 25 years earlier.
16
Q
Harper (Patterns of fertility)
A
Says once a pattern of low fertility lasts for more than one generation, cultural norms about family size change. Smaller families become the norm and large ones are seen as “deviant” or less accepted.
17
Q
Infant mortality rate (IMR)
A
The number of infants who die before their first birthday, per thousand babies born alive, per year.
18
Q
Harper (fall in IMR)
A
Argues that a fall in the IMR leads to a fall in birth rate. Because, if many infants die, parents have more children to “replace” those they have lost, thereby increasing the birth rate. By contrast, if infants survive, parents will have fewer of them.
19
Q
What was the IMR in 1900?
A
154, 15% of babies died within their first year.
20
Q
Reasons for decline in birth rate 1900-2001:
Falling IMR
A
- Improved housing and better sanitation, such as flushing toilets and clean drinking water, reducing infectious disease.
- Better nutrition, including that of mothers.
- Better knowledge of hygiene, child health, and welfare, spread via women’s magazines.
- A fall in the number of married women working may have improved their help and that of babies.
- Improved services for mother and children, such as antenatal and postnatal clinics.
21
Q
Reasons for falling IMR post 1950:
Medical factors
A
- Campaigns to improve public health measures.
- Mass immunisation agains childhood diseases e.g whooping cough and measles.
- The use of antibiotics to fight infection.
- Improved midwifery and obstetric techniques.
22
Q
By 1950 the UK’s IMR had fallen
A
to 30, and by 2012 it stood at 4 - barely 1/40th of its 1900 figure.
23
Q
Brass and kabir (1978)
A
Argue the trend to smaller families began in urban areas. This is interesting as the IMR first began to fall in rural areas, suggesting medical practices may not affect birth rates in the way we think they have.
24
Q
Reasons for decline in birth rate 1900-2001:
Children as economic liabilities
A
- Until the late 19th century, children were an economic asset to their parents, they could be sent out to work.
- But, laws banning child labour, introducing compulsory schooling, and raising the school leaving age mean that children remain economically dependent on their parents for longer.
- Changing norms about what children have a right to expect from their parents in material terms mean that the cost of bringing up children has risen.
- As a result of financial pressures children are less willing or able to have large families.
25
Reasons for decline in birth rate 1900-2001:
Child Centeredness
- Increasing child centeredness of both the family and society as a whole means that childhood is now socially constructed as a uniquely important period in the individual's life.
- Has encouraged a shift from 'quantity' to 'quality'.
- Parents now have fewer children and lavish more attention and resources on these few.
26
Reason's for minor increase in birth rate since 2001:
Increase in migration
- On average, mothers from outside the UK have a higher fertility rate than those born in the UK.
- Babies born to mothers from outside the UK accounted for 25% of all births in 2011.
- Projection for up to 2041 expects the annual number of births to be constant at around 800 000 a year.
27
Impact of fertility changes:
The family
- With fewer children, women are more likely to be able to go out to work, thus creating the dual earner couple typical of many professional families.
- Better off couples, however, may be able to have larger families and still afford childcare that allows them to both work full time.
- Falling fertility rates mean fewer children, so childhood may become a lonelier experience, as fewer children will have siblings.
- More childless adults may mean fewer voices speaking up in support of children's interests.
- Fewer children could also mean children are more valued.
28
Impact of fertility changes:
The dependency ratio
-Children make up large part of the dependency population, so a fall in the number of children reduces 'the burden of dependency' on the working population.
29
The dependency ratio
The relationship between the size of the working or productive part of the population and the size of non-working or dependent part of the population. The earnings, savings, and taxes of the working population must support the dependent population.
30
Impact of fertility changes:
Public services and policies
- Fewer schools and maternity and child health services may be needed.
- Affects the cost of maternity/paternity leave and types of housing built.
- However these decisions are political, the government could decide to have smaller class sizes instead of reducing the number of schools.
31
Death rate
The number of deaths per thousand of the population per year.
32
What was the death rate in 1900?
19, whereas by 2012 it has dramatically fallen to 8.9.
33
In the UK the overall number of deaths has remained stable since 1900 at round
600 00 per year, but there have been some important fluctuations such as the two world wars, covid-19, and the flu epidemic of 1918. However, the death rate has fallen since 1950.
34
Reasons for the decline in the death rate during the 20th century:
Decline in deaths from infectious diseases
- By the 1950s, 'diseases os affluence' such as heart disease and cancers replaced infectious diseases as the main cause of death. Degenerative diseases affect the middle aged and old rather than the young.
- Possible that the population began to develop some natural resistance or some diseases became less powerful.
35
Tranter (1996)
Argued over 3/4 of the decline in death rate from 1850 to 1970 was due to a fall in deaths from infectious diseases.
36
Reasons for the decline in the death rate during the 20th century:
Improved Nutrition
Better nutrition increased resistance to infection and increased the survival chances of those who did become infected.
| (McKeown)
37
McKeown (1972)
Argues improved nutrition accounted for up to half the reduction in death rates and was particularly important in reducing the number of deaths from tuberculosis.
However McKeown does not explain why females, who receive a smaller share of family food, lived for longer than measles.
38
Reasons for the decline in the death rate during the 20th century:
Medical Improvements
Post-1950, improved medical knowledge, techniques, and organisation helped to reduce death rates. Advances included introduction of antibiotics, immunisation, blood transfusions, improved maternity services. Also the NHS was set up in 1948.
Most recently, improved medication, by-pass surgery, and other developments have reduced deaths from heart disease by one-third.
39
When was the NHS set up?
1948
40
Reasons for the decline in the death rate during the 20th century:
Smoking and Diet
The fall in death rates in recent decades has come from a reduction in the number of people smoking.
21st century obesity has replaced smoking as the new lifestyle epidemic; in 2012 one quarter of all UK adults were obese. Although obesity has dramatically increased, deaths have been kept low because of drug therapies.
41
Harper (smoking)
Believes that the great fall in death rates in recent decades has come not from medical improvements, but simply from a reduction in the number of people smoking.
42
Harper (obesity)
Harper suggests that the UK may be moving to an 'American' health culture where lifestyles are unhealthy but where a long lifespan is achieved by use of costly medication.
43
Reasons for the decline in the death rate during the 20th century:
Public Health Measures and Environmental improvements
In the 20th Century, more effective central and local governments passed laws that led to a range of improvements in public health and the quality of the environment.
These included improvements in housing (producing drier, ventilated, less overcrowded accommodation), purer drinking water, laws to combat the adulteration of food and drink, pasteurisation of milk and improved sewage disposal methods.
44
The Clean Air Acts 1952
Reduced air pollution, such as the smog that led to 4000 deaths, in five days.
45
Reasons for the decline in the death rate during the 20th century:
Other Social Changes
- The decline of dangerous manual occupations such as mining.
- Smaller families reduced the rate of transmission of infection.
- Greater public knowledge of the causes of illness.
- Lifestyle changes, especially the reduction in number of men who smoke.
- Higher incomes, allowing for a healthier lifestyle.
46
Life expectancy
Refers to how long a person born in a specific year can be expected to live.
47
Males born in England in 1900 could expect on average to live until they were 50 and females until 57
whereas males born in 2013 can expect to live for 90.7 years and females for 94 years.
48
A new-born baby today has a better chance of reaching its 65th birthday than a baby
born in 1900 has of reaching its 1st birthday.
49
Harper (2012)
Predicts if the trend to greater longevity continues, we will achieve 'radical longevity', with many more centenarians.
50
How many centenarians are there currently in the UK?
10,000, and by 2100 there are projected to be one million.
51
What are the gender differences in life expectancy?
Women generally live longer than men, although the gap has narrowed due to changes in employment and lifestyle (such as more women smoking).
52
What are regional differences in life expectancy?
Those living in the North and Scotland have a lower life expectancy than those living in the South.
53
What are the class differences in life expectancy?
Working class men in unskilled or routine jobs are nearly three times as likely to die before they are 65, compared with men in managerial or professional jobs.
54
Walker (2011)
Those living in the poorest areas of England die on average seven years earlier than those in the richest areas.
The difference in life expectancy for people who are disability free is 17 years longer.
55
The average age of the UK population is rising. In 1911 it was 25, in 2013 it was
40.3, and by 2037 it is projected to reach 42.8.
56
The ageing population is the result of the following 3 factors:
- Increasing life expectancy: people living longer into old age.
- Declining infant mortality: very few infants die early in life.
- Declining fertility: fewer young people are born in comparison to the number of older people in the population.
57
For first time in 2014
The number of people aged 65+ equalled the number of under 15s.
58
How much of the population was over 65 in 2011?
9.2 million people, making up 16.4% of the total population of England and Wales, that is 1 in 6 of the population.
59
On current projections by 2041 there will be
as many 78-year olds as 5-year olds.
60
Effects of an Ageing population:
Public Services
Older people consume a larger proportion of services such as health and social care than other age groups.
Particularly true of the 'old old' (75+).
However, caution should be made regarding over generalisation - many old people remain in relatively good health well into old age.
An ageing population may also mean there are changes to policies and provision of housing, transport, and other services
61
Effects of an Ageing population:
Changes in family structure
There is an increase in extended families due to increased life expectancy.
With people living longer there are increases in multi-generational and beanpole families.
62
Effects of an Ageing population:
Single-Person Pensioner Households
The number of pensioners living alone has increased and single-person pensioner households now account for 12.5% or one in eight of all households.
Most of these are female, both because women generally live longer than men and because they are usually younger than their husbands.
Among the over 75s, there are twice as many women as men. This is described as the 'feminisation of later life'
63
Effects of an Ageing population:
The dependency ratio
Non-working old are an economically dependent group who need to be provided for by those of working age e.g through taxation, to pay for pensions and healthcare.
As the number of retired people rises, this increases the dependency ratio and the burden on the working population.
64
In 2015, there were 3.2 people of working age for every one pensioner. This ratio is predicted
to fall to 2.8, and to one by 2033.
65
Effects of an Ageing population:
The dependency ratio
EVALUATION
However it would be wrong to assume that 'old' means someone is economically dependent. The age at which people can draw their pension is rising; from 2020 both men + women will have to wait until they are 66 to access state pension. This will increase to 67 by 2026.
It should be noted that an increase in the number of old people raises the dependency ratio, but in an ageing population this is offset by a declining number of dependent children.
66
Effects of an Ageing population:
Policy implications
The main problem will be how to finance a longer old age. This can be done by paying more into our savings and taxes while working, or by working for longer, or both.
Housing policy may need to change to encourage older people to 'trade down' into smaller accommodation.
This would release wealth to improve their standard of living and free up housing for younger people.
67
Hirsch (Ageing populations)
Argues that several important social policies will need to change to tackle the new problems posed by an ageing population. However these policies will require a cultural change in our attitudes to old age, which Hirsch recognises.
His view illustrates that old age is a social construct - something shaped and defined by society.
68
What is Ageism?
The negative stereotyping and unequal treatment of people based on their age.
69
Ageism towards older people:
Ageism towards older people shows itself in many ways such as discrimination in employment and unequal treatment in healthcare. Many of the ways of speaking and thinking about old age and ageing has been constructed as a 'problem'.
70
Ageism is thought to be the result of
"structured dependency". The old are largely excluded from paid work, leaving them economically dependent on their families or the state. In modern society our identity and status, are largely determined by our role in production.
Those excluded from production by compulsory retirement have a dependent status and stigmatised identity.
71
Phillipson (1982)
Argues that the old are of no use to capitalism because they are no longer productive.
As a result, the state is unwilling to support them adequately and so the family often takes responsibility of their care.
72
Post-modernist views on fixed life stages, ageism:
Postmodernists argue that the fixed, orderly stages of the life course have broken down. Trends such as children dressing in adult styles, later marriage, and early retirement all begin to blur the lines between the life stages.
This gives individuals greater choice of lifestyles, whatever the age.
73
Fixed life stages and age-related identities:
In modern society, life is structured in a fixed series of stages. Age becomes important in role allocation, creating fixed life stages and age-related identities.
The old are thus excluded from a role in the labour force and made dependent and powerless.
74
Hunt
Consumption is key to defining our identities. Hunt argues this means we can choose a lifestyle and identity regardless of our age - it no longer determines who we are or how we live.
75
Effects of an Ageing population:
Increased consumption
The old have become a market for a vast range of "body maintenance" goods and services through which they can create their identities.
E.g Cosmetic surgery, exercise equipment, gym memberships and anti-ageing products.
76
Age Concern (2004)
Found more people reported age discrimination than any other form.
77
Less Age Stigma
The centrality of media and the emphasis on surface features undermine age as a stigmatised life stage.
Cosmetic surgery, exercise equipment, gym memberships and anti-ageing products as trends also begin to break down the ageist stereotypes found in modern society.
78
Pilcher (1995)
```
Argues inequalities such as class and gender remain important, not just ageism. Many of these are related to the individuals previous occupational position.
For example:
The middle class have better occupational pensions and greater savings from higher salaries.
Poorer old people have a shorter life expectancy and suffer more infirmity, harder to maintain youthful self-identity.
Women's lower earnings and career breaks as carers mean lower pensions.
```
79
Post-modernist views on fixed life stages, ageism:
EVALUATION
Are criticised for understating the importance of other inequalities. These are related to the wider structures of society and they play a major part in shaping the experience of old age, often restricting the freedom of the elderly to choose an identity through their consumption. Older people also face discrimination that limits their choices.
80
What is meant by the 'structured dependency of the old'?
The old are largely excluded from paid work, leaving them economically dependent on their families and the state.
81
What is meant by the 'feminisation of later life'?
Among over 75s there are twice as many women as men. Therefore age is viewed as a feminine thing.
82
What is Migration?
The movement of people from place to place.
83
Internal migration:
Migration within a country/society.
84
International migration:
Migration between different countries.
85
What is Immigration?
The movement of people into a society.
86
What is Emigration?
The movement of people out of a society.
87
What is Net Migration?
The difference between the numbers immigrating and emigrating, expressed as a net increase or decrease due to migration.
88
What was the growth of the UK population throughout the 20th century a result of?
Natural Increase.
89
Until the 1980s in England the numbers...
immigrating were lower than those emigrating.
90
What was the largest immigrant group to the UK from 1900 - WW2?
The Irish - mainly for economic reasons, followed by Eastern and Central European Jews - who were often fleeing persecution, and people of British descent, from Canada and the US.
91
Who began immigrating to Britain in the 1950s?
Black immigrants from the Caribbean.
92
Who migrated to Britain in the 1960s and 70s?
South Asian immigrants (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka), and East Africans (Uganda, Kenya).
93
What percentage of the total population did minority ethnic groups account for in 2011?
12.1%
94
Immigration and Nationality Acts (1962 - 1990):
Placed severe restrictions on non-white immigration.
95
Immigration by the 1980s:
Non-white immigrants only accounted for 1/4 of all immigrants, with white people from the European Union making up the main source of immigration.
96
From as early as the mid-16th century until the 1980s the UK was always a _net exporter_ of people:
What does that mean?
More people were emigrate than have come to settle.
97
Where have the majoroty of people emigrated from Britain to since 1900?
* The US
* The old Commonwealth countries (Canada, Australia, New Zealand)
* South Africa
98
Reasons for Emigration:
1) Economic: 'Push factors' = economic recession and unemployment. 'Pull factors' = high wages or better opportunities abroad (labour shortages in these countries).
2) Religious, political or racial persecution.
99
_Impact of Migration on UK population structure:_
Population Size
Population increased from 1992 to 2004 becuase of the expansion of the EU in 2004 to include ten new member states, mostly in Eastern Europe which gave citizens the right to live and work in the UK.
100
What was the net migration in 2012?
176, 000 (497,000 immigrating and 321,000 emigrating).
101
What was net migration in 2004?
223,000 - the highest net inflow of people since 1991. (Key reason=expansion of EU)
102
_The Impact of Migration on UK population Structure:_
Age Structure
* Both immigratnts and emmigrants are generally young. (More likely male than female)
* Immigarnts are more fertile becuase they are younger - produce more babies.
* Significant number of emigrants are old - 40%
103
What percentage of Emigrants are older?
40% - move to EU contries like Spain to retire.
104
Average age of UK passport holders and non-Uk passport holders (2011):
In 2011 the average age of UK passport holders was 41, whereas the average age of non-UK passport holders was 31.
105
_The Impact of Migration on the UK population Structure?_
The Dependency Ratio
* On the one hand migrants are mainly of working age and this reduces dependency, however immigrant women tend to have higher fertility rates.
* Short term these higher fertility rates contribute to a higher dependency, but in the long term this produces more workers, helping to reduce ratio.
* The longer a group is settled in a particular country, the closer their fertility rates come to the national average, reducing their overall imapct on the dependency ratio.
106
_The Impact of Migration on UK population Structure:_
Distribution of the population - internal migration
* Internal migration during the _inductrial revolution_ caused a population shift from the largely agricultural South to the industrial North for jobs in mining, shipbuilding, steel e.c.t.
* In 1851, Britain was the first country to see more than half its population living in towns and cities.
* However, in the 20th century these industries declined and gave way to newer ones (electrical engineering, cars), developing in the south and midlands, which catalysed a population shift in the opposite diorection in search of job opportunities.
* London and the South East have exerted an important pull more recently becuase of the growth in finance and service industries there.
* Suburbinisation, reversal of the outflow of population from inner city areas.
107
What is suburbanisation?
The growth of large residential areas surrounding major cities.
108
How do younger immigrants effect the the UK's population structure?
* More fertile - increases birth rates
* Of working age - decreases _dependency ratio_
109
What is _globalisation_?
The idea that barriers between societies are disappearing and poeple are becomming increasingly interconnected across national boundaries.
110
What is a major social change resulting from _globalisation_?
International migration.
111
What is globalisation the result of?
* The growth of communication systems
* Global Media
* The creation of global markets
* The fall of communism in Eastern Europe
* Expansion of the Europeian Union
112
_Trends in Global Migration:_
Acceleartion
The rate of migration has sped up. Betweem 2000-2013 international migration has increased by 33%.
113
114
How many people entered or left the UK in 2013?
862,000 people
115
United Nations study on trends in global migration (2013)
Found that between 2000-2013 international migration increased by 33% to reach 232 million or 3.2% of the worlds population.
116
_Trends in Global Migration:_
Differentiation
Globalisation is increasing the diversity og types of migrants. There are many types, including: permanent settlers, temporary workers, spouses, and forced migrants such as refugees and asylum seekers. Some may have legal entitlement, while others enter without permission.
117
Immigration before the 1990s:
Came from a fairly narrow rang of former British colonies, most had the right to settle and formed stable, geographically conentrated and homogeneous ethic communities.
118
Vetrovec (2007)
_'Super-diversity'_ = Migrants now come from a much wider range of coubtries and a given ethnic group may increasingly be divided by culture or religion and be widely dispersed throughout the UK.
119
Cohen (2006)
Distinguishes three types of migrant.
120
_Cohen (2006): Types of Migrant_
Citizens
Migrants with full citizenship rights e.g voting rights and access to benefits. Since the 1970s, the UK has made it harder for immigrants to acquire these rights.
121
_Cohen (2006): Types of Migrant_
Denizens
Privaleged foreign nationals welcomed by the state e.g. billionaire oligarchs or highly paid employees of multinational companies.
122
_Cohen (2006): Types of Migrant_
Helots
Are the most exploited group (Literally slaves). States and employers regard them as 'disposable units of labour power', a reserve army of labour. They are found in unskilled, poorly paid work, and include illegally trafficed workers and those tied to particular employers, such as domestic servants.
123
_Trends in Global Migration:_
The Feminisation of Migration
* In the past migrants were men, however now almost half of all global migrants are female.
* 'The globalisation of the gender division if labour'.
* There is a global transfer of women's emotional labour, where migrant nannies provide care for their employers' children at the expense of their own children left behind in a home country.
* Migrant women may enter western countries as 'mail order brides'.
* Women may also enter the UK as illegally traffiked sex workers, kept in conditions amounting to slavery.
124
What proportion of global migrants are female?
Almost 1/2.
125
What is 'the globalisation of the gender division of labour'?
Where female migrants find that they are being fitted into patriarchal stereotypes about women's roles as carers or providers of sexual services.
126
Ehrenreich and Hochschild (2003)
Observed that care work, domestic work, and sex work in western countries is increasingly performed by migrant women from poor countries.
127
According to _Ehrenreich and Hochschild (2003)_ why is care, domestic, and sex work increasingly performed by migrant women from poor countries?
* The expansion of service occupations in western countries which has led to an increased demand for female labour.
* Western women being less willing or able to perform domestic labour.
* An unwillingness amoung western men to perform domestic labour.
* The failure of the state to provide adequate childcare.
128
Shutes (2011)
Reports that 40% of adult care nurses in the UK are migrants, and the majority of these are female.
129
What does the phenomenon of 'mail order' brides reflect?
Gendered and racialised stereotypes, for example of oriental women as subservient.
130
_Global Migration - Impact on Families, Households, and Society:_
Family + Household Diversity
* Increase in the range of families and households linked to ethnic differences: Black families more likely to be LPF, Asian families more likely to be larger.
* Increase in geographically dispersed extended families: Grandparents moving abroad to EU countries to retire.
* Increase in LATs or long distance relationships: People move for careers, or other push/pull factors but stay in relationships.
131
_Global Migration - Impact on Families, Households, and Society:_
Population Size
* Increase in net migration/net inflow of people.
132
_Migrant Identities:_
We all have multiple sources of identity: family, friends, neighbourhood, religion, nationality ect. that give us a sense of belonging and of who we are. For migrants and their descendants their country of origin may provide an additional or alternative source of identity. Migrants may deveop hybrid-identities.
133
What are hybrid-identities?
Identities made up of two or more different sources.
134
Eade (1994)
Found that second generation Bangladeshi Muslims in Britain created Heirarchical indetities: they saw themselves as Muslims first, then Bengali, then British. Those with hybrid identities may find that other challenge their identity claims of accuse them of not fitting in.
135
Types of Migrant Identity:
* Hybrid Identities
* Heirarchical Identites
* Cross-cultural Identites
* Transnational Identities
136
Eriksen (2007)
* Globalisation has created more diverse migration patterns, with back-and-forth movemenrs of people through networks rather than permanent settlement in another country.
* As a result, migrants are less likely to see themselves as belonging completely to one culture.
* Instead, they develop transnational identities.
137
What are transnational Identities?
138
139
_Eriksen_ - cross-cultural links:
Modern technology makes it possible to sustain global ties without having to travel. The globalised economy means that migrants may have more links to other migrants around the world than to either their country of origin or of settlemet.
140
Eriksen (2007) - Chinese migrants in Rome
Describes Chinese migrants in Rome who found Mandarin more useful
141
The politicisation of Migration:
* With increased global flows of migrants, migration has become an important political issue.
* States now have policies that seek to control immigration, absorb migrants into society and deal with increased ethnic and cultural diuversity.
* More recently immitgration policies have also become linked to national security and anti-terrorism policies.
142
Immigration policies - _Assimilationism_:
* First state policy approach to immigration.
* Aimed to encourage immigrants to adopt the language, culture, value, customs and beliefs of the host culture.
143
Evaluation of Assimulation Policies:
Face the problem that transnational migrants with hybrid identities may not be willing to abandon their culture or to see themselevs as belonging to just one nation-state.
144
Immigration policies - _Multiculturalism_:
* Policy that accepts that migrants may wish to retain a seperate cultural identity.
* From 1960s tehre was a move torwards multiculturalism.
145
Evaluation of Multiculturalism policies:
* From the 1960s there was a move torwards multiculturalism, but since the 9/11 Islamic terrorist attack in 2001, many politicians have swung back to demanding migrants assimulate culturally.
* In practice, multicultural acceptance may be limited to more superficial acts of cultural diversity e.g. chiken tikka masala as Britains national dish.
146
Example of Assimilation Policy:
France (2010)
The veiling of the face in public was made illegal.
147
Eriksen - _Shallow diversity_:
A type of multiculturalism which is acceptable to the state, such as regarding chicken tikka masala as Britain's national dish.
148
Eriksen - _Deep diversity_
A type of multiculturalism that accepts arranged marriages or the veiling of women, which is not acceptable to the state.
149
Castles (2000)
Argues that assimulationist policies are counter-productive becuase they mark out minority groups as culturally backward or 'other'. This can lead to minoroties responding by emphasisng their differences, as in the case of Islamic Fundamentalism. This increases the hosts' suspicion of them as the 'enemy within' and promotes further marginalisation, defeating its own goal.
150
Castles and Kosack (1973)
State that assimilation policies may encourage workers to blame migrants for social problems such as unemployment, resulting in racist scapegpoating. This benefits capitalism by creating a racially divided working class and preventing untied action in defence of proletariat interests.
151
Identify two disadvantages and advantages of immigrants living in stable, geographically concentrated and homologous ethnic communities:
Advantages:
1. Promotes ethnic/cultural businesses/sectors e.g. chinatown
2. Gives people there a sense of community, can rely on eachother for support.
Disadvantages:
1. Creates a barrier to integration if they have little contact with the host country's citizens.
2. Can also encourage their marginalisation - when they have little contact w the outside world, ignorance leads to racism.
152
Identify a possible negative consequence of transnational identities:
Migrants might not have full loyalty to the country theyre living in = neither nor.
