Families and Households: Demography

Question 1

What is demography?

Answer 1

• The study of populations and their characteristics including: Population size, growth, and decline, and age structure.

Question 2

In 1801 Britain had a population of

Answer 2

10.5 million.

Question 3

By 1901 Britain had a population of

Answer 3

37 million, today it is 65 million.

Question 4

Until the 1980s UK population growth was largely the product of

Answer 4

natural change - the result of there being more births than deaths. However since the 1980s, most of the growth has come from net migration.

Question 5

Immigration

Answer 5

When people enter a country from elsewhere and integrate into its society. This leads to a population increase.

Question 6

Emigration

Answer 6

How many people leave the country to live elsewhere (causing population decrease).

Question 7

Birth rate

Answer 7

The number on live births per 1000 of the population per year.

Question 8

What happened from 1900 until 2001?

Answer 8

There was a long-term decline in birth rates, but the birth rate has been increasing again.

Question 9

When did birth rates peak?

Answer 9

2012 at 12.8, the highest since 1971.

Question 10

Factors determining birth rate

Answer 10

The proportion of women who are of childbearing age (15-44).
How fertile they are - that is, how many children they have.

Question 11

Total fertility rate (TFR)

Answer 11

The average number of children women will have during their fertile years. Despite this rising since 2001 to 1.94 in 2012 from an all time low of 1.63, it is still far lower than its peak of 2.95 children in 1964 (the 60s baby boom). In 2014 it was 1.83

Question 12

Changes in fertility and birth rates reflect the fact that:

Answer 12

More UK born women are remaining childless than in the past.

Women are postponing having children - average age for giving birth now 30 and fertility rates for women in their 30s and 40s are now on the increase. Nevertheless, they have fewer fertile years remaining so produce fewer children.

Question 13

Reasons for decline in birth rate 1900-2001:

Changes in the position of women

Answer 13

Major changes in the 20th century including:
-Legal equality with men, including right to vote.
Increased educational opportunities - girls now do better at school than boys.
-More women in paid employment, plus laws outlawing unequal pay and sex discrimination.
-Changes in attitudes to family life and women’s role.
Easier access to divorce.
-Access to abortion and reliable, giving women more control over their fertility.

Question 14

Harper (2012)

Answer 14

Argues education of women is the most important reason for the long-term fall in birth and fertility rates. Argues it has led to a change in mindset for women, resulting in fewer children. Educated women are most likely to use family planning and see other possibilities in life apart from the traditional housewife and mother. Many choose to delay childbearing, or not have children at all, in order to pursue a career.

Question 15

In 2012 one in five women aged

Answer 15

45 were childless, double the number 25 years earlier.

Question 16

Harper (Patterns of fertility)

Answer 16

Says once a pattern of low fertility lasts for more than one generation, cultural norms about family size change. Smaller families become the norm and large ones are seen as “deviant” or less accepted.

Question 17

Infant mortality rate (IMR)

Answer 17

The number of infants who die before their first birthday, per thousand babies born alive, per year.

Question 18

Harper (fall in IMR)

Answer 18

Argues that a fall in the IMR leads to a fall in birth rate. Because, if many infants die, parents have more children to “replace” those they have lost, thereby increasing the birth rate. By contrast, if infants survive, parents will have fewer of them.

Question 19

What was the IMR in 1900?

Answer 19

154, 15% of babies died within their first year.

Question 20

Reasons for decline in birth rate 1900-2001:

Falling IMR

Answer 20

• Improved housing and better sanitation, such as flushing toilets and clean drinking water, reducing infectious disease.
• Better nutrition, including that of mothers.
• Better knowledge of hygiene, child health, and welfare, spread via women’s magazines.
• A fall in the number of married women working may have improved their help and that of babies.
• Improved services for mother and children, such as antenatal and postnatal clinics.

Question 21

Reasons for falling IMR post 1950:

Medical factors

Answer 21

• Campaigns to improve public health measures.
• Mass immunisation agains childhood diseases e.g whooping cough and measles.
• The use of antibiotics to fight infection.
• Improved midwifery and obstetric techniques.

Question 22

By 1950 the UK’s IMR had fallen

Answer 22

to 30, and by 2012 it stood at 4 - barely 1/40th of its 1900 figure.

Question 23

Brass and kabir (1978)

Answer 23

Argue the trend to smaller families began in urban areas. This is interesting as the IMR first began to fall in rural areas, suggesting medical practices may not affect birth rates in the way we think they have.

Question 24

Reasons for decline in birth rate 1900-2001:

Children as economic liabilities

Answer 24

• Until the late 19th century, children were an economic asset to their parents, they could be sent out to work.
• But, laws banning child labour, introducing compulsory schooling, and raising the school leaving age mean that children remain economically dependent on their parents for longer.
• Changing norms about what children have a right to expect from their parents in material terms mean that the cost of bringing up children has risen.
• As a result of financial pressures children are less willing or able to have large families.

Question 25

Reasons for decline in birth rate 1900-2001:

Child Centeredness

Answer 25

• Increasing child centeredness of both the family and society as a whole means that childhood is now socially constructed as a uniquely important period in the individual’s life.
• Has encouraged a shift from ‘quantity’ to ‘quality’.
• Parents now have fewer children and lavish more attention and resources on these few.

Question 26

Reason’s for minor increase in birth rate since 2001:

Increase in migration

Answer 26

• On average, mothers from outside the UK have a higher fertility rate than those born in the UK.
• Babies born to mothers from outside the UK accounted for 25% of all births in 2011.
• Projection for up to 2041 expects the annual number of births to be constant at around 800 000 a year.

Question 27

Impact of fertility changes:

The family

Answer 27

• With fewer children, women are more likely to be able to go out to work, thus creating the dual earner couple typical of many professional families.
• Better off couples, however, may be able to have larger families and still afford childcare that allows them to both work full time.
• Falling fertility rates mean fewer children, so childhood may become a lonelier experience, as fewer children will have siblings.
• More childless adults may mean fewer voices speaking up in support of children’s interests.
• Fewer children could also mean children are more valued.

Question 28

Impact of fertility changes:

The dependency ratio

Answer 28

-Children make up large part of the dependency population, so a fall in the number of children reduces ‘the burden of dependency’ on the working population.

Question 29

The dependency ratio

Answer 29

The relationship between the size of the working or productive part of the population and the size of non-working or dependent part of the population. The earnings, savings, and taxes of the working population must support the dependent population.

Question 30

Impact of fertility changes:

Public services and policies

Answer 30

• Fewer schools and maternity and child health services may be needed.
• Affects the cost of maternity/paternity leave and types of housing built.
• However these decisions are political, the government could decide to have smaller class sizes instead of reducing the number of schools.

Question 31

Death rate

Answer 31

The number of deaths per thousand of the population per year.

Question 32

What was the death rate in 1900?

Answer 32

19, whereas by 2012 it has dramatically fallen to 8.9.

Question 33

In the UK the overall number of deaths has remained stable since 1900 at round

Answer 33

600 00 per year, but there have been some important fluctuations such as the two world wars, covid-19, and the flu epidemic of 1918. However, the death rate has fallen since 1950.

Question 34

Reasons for the decline in the death rate during the 20th century:

Decline in deaths from infectious diseases

Answer 34

• By the 1950s, ‘diseases os affluence’ such as heart disease and cancers replaced infectious diseases as the main cause of death. Degenerative diseases affect the middle aged and old rather than the young.
• Possible that the population began to develop some natural resistance or some diseases became less powerful.

Question 35

Tranter (1996)

Answer 35

Argued over 3/4 of the decline in death rate from 1850 to 1970 was due to a fall in deaths from infectious diseases.

Question 36

Reasons for the decline in the death rate during the 20th century:

Improved Nutrition

Answer 36

Better nutrition increased resistance to infection and increased the survival chances of those who did become infected.

(McKeown)

Question 37

McKeown (1972)

Answer 37

Argues improved nutrition accounted for up to half the reduction in death rates and was particularly important in reducing the number of deaths from tuberculosis.

However McKeown does not explain why females, who receive a smaller share of family food, lived for longer than measles.

Question 38

Reasons for the decline in the death rate during the 20th century:

Medical Improvements

Answer 38

Post-1950, improved medical knowledge, techniques, and organisation helped to reduce death rates. Advances included introduction of antibiotics, immunisation, blood transfusions, improved maternity services. Also the NHS was set up in 1948.

Most recently, improved medication, by-pass surgery, and other developments have reduced deaths from heart disease by one-third.

Question 39

When was the NHS set up?

Answer 39

1948

Question 40

Reasons for the decline in the death rate during the 20th century:

Smoking and Diet

Answer 40

The fall in death rates in recent decades has come from a reduction in the number of people smoking.

21st century obesity has replaced smoking as the new lifestyle epidemic; in 2012 one quarter of all UK adults were obese. Although obesity has dramatically increased, deaths have been kept low because of drug therapies.

Question 41

Harper (smoking)

Answer 41

Believes that the great fall in death rates in recent decades has come not from medical improvements, but simply from a reduction in the number of people smoking.

Question 42

Harper (obesity)

Answer 42

Harper suggests that the UK may be moving to an ‘American’ health culture where lifestyles are unhealthy but where a long lifespan is achieved by use of costly medication.

Question 43

Reasons for the decline in the death rate during the 20th century:

Public Health Measures and Environmental improvements

Answer 43

In the 20th Century, more effective central and local governments passed laws that led to a range of improvements in public health and the quality of the environment.

These included improvements in housing (producing drier, ventilated, less overcrowded accommodation), purer drinking water, laws to combat the adulteration of food and drink, pasteurisation of milk and improved sewage disposal methods.

Question 44

The Clean Air Acts 1952

Answer 44

Reduced air pollution, such as the smog that led to 4000 deaths, in five days.

Question 45

Reasons for the decline in the death rate during the 20th century:

Other Social Changes

Answer 45

• The decline of dangerous manual occupations such as mining.
• Smaller families reduced the rate of transmission of infection.
• Greater public knowledge of the causes of illness.
• Lifestyle changes, especially the reduction in number of men who smoke.
• Higher incomes, allowing for a healthier lifestyle.

Question 46

Life expectancy

Answer 46

Refers to how long a person born in a specific year can be expected to live.

Question 47

Males born in England in 1900 could expect on average to live until they were 50 and females until 57

Answer 47

whereas males born in 2013 can expect to live for 90.7 years and females for 94 years.

Question 48

A new-born baby today has a better chance of reaching its 65th birthday than a baby

Answer 48

born in 1900 has of reaching its 1st birthday.

Question 49

Harper (2012)

Answer 49

Predicts if the trend to greater longevity continues, we will achieve ‘radical longevity’, with many more centenarians.

Question 50

How many centenarians are there currently in the UK?

Answer 50

10,000, and by 2100 there are projected to be one million.

Question 51

What are the gender differences in life expectancy?

Answer 51

Women generally live longer than men, although the gap has narrowed due to changes in employment and lifestyle (such as more women smoking).

Question 52

What are regional differences in life expectancy?

Answer 52

Those living in the North and Scotland have a lower life expectancy than those living in the South.

Question 53

What are the class differences in life expectancy?

Answer 53

Working class men in unskilled or routine jobs are nearly three times as likely to die before they are 65, compared with men in managerial or professional jobs.

Question 54

Walker (2011)

Answer 54

Those living in the poorest areas of England die on average seven years earlier than those in the richest areas.
The difference in life expectancy for people who are disability free is 17 years longer.

Question 55

The average age of the UK population is rising. In 1911 it was 25, in 2013 it was

Answer 55

40.3, and by 2037 it is projected to reach 42.8.

Question 56

The ageing population is the result of the following 3 factors:

Answer 56

• Increasing life expectancy: people living longer into old age.
• Declining infant mortality: very few infants die early in life.
• Declining fertility: fewer young people are born in comparison to the number of older people in the population.

Question 57

For first time in 2014

Answer 57

The number of people aged 65+ equalled the number of under 15s.

Question 58

How much of the population was over 65 in 2011?

Answer 58

9.2 million people, making up 16.4% of the total population of England and Wales, that is 1 in 6 of the population.

Question 59

On current projections by 2041 there will be

Answer 59

as many 78-year olds as 5-year olds.

Question 60

Effects of an Ageing population:

Public Services

Answer 60

Older people consume a larger proportion of services such as health and social care than other age groups.
Particularly true of the ‘old old’ (75+).
However, caution should be made regarding over generalisation - many old people remain in relatively good health well into old age.

An ageing population may also mean there are changes to policies and provision of housing, transport, and other services

Question 61

Effects of an Ageing population:

Changes in family structure

Answer 61

There is an increase in extended families due to increased life expectancy.
With people living longer there are increases in multi-generational and beanpole families.

Question 62

Effects of an Ageing population:

Single-Person Pensioner Households

Answer 62

The number of pensioners living alone has increased and single-person pensioner households now account for 12.5% or one in eight of all households.
Most of these are female, both because women generally live longer than men and because they are usually younger than their husbands.

Among the over 75s, there are twice as many women as men. This is described as the ‘feminisation of later life’

Question 63

Effects of an Ageing population:

The dependency ratio

Answer 63

Non-working old are an economically dependent group who need to be provided for by those of working age e.g through taxation, to pay for pensions and healthcare.
As the number of retired people rises, this increases the dependency ratio and the burden on the working population.

Question 64

In 2015, there were 3.2 people of working age for every one pensioner. This ratio is predicted

Answer 64

to fall to 2.8, and to one by 2033.

Question 65

Effects of an Ageing population:

The dependency ratio

EVALUATION

Answer 65

However it would be wrong to assume that ‘old’ means someone is economically dependent. The age at which people can draw their pension is rising; from 2020 both men + women will have to wait until they are 66 to access state pension. This will increase to 67 by 2026.

It should be noted that an increase in the number of old people raises the dependency ratio, but in an ageing population this is offset by a declining number of dependent children.

Question 66

Effects of an Ageing population:

Policy implications

Answer 66

The main problem will be how to finance a longer old age. This can be done by paying more into our savings and taxes while working, or by working for longer, or both.
Housing policy may need to change to encourage older people to ‘trade down’ into smaller accommodation.
This would release wealth to improve their standard of living and free up housing for younger people.

Question 67

Hirsch (Ageing populations)

Answer 67

Argues that several important social policies will need to change to tackle the new problems posed by an ageing population. However these policies will require a cultural change in our attitudes to old age, which Hirsch recognises.
His view illustrates that old age is a social construct - something shaped and defined by society.

Question 68

What is Ageism?

Answer 68

The negative stereotyping and unequal treatment of people based on their age.

Question 69

Ageism towards older people:

Answer 69

Ageism towards older people shows itself in many ways such as discrimination in employment and unequal treatment in healthcare. Many of the ways of speaking and thinking about old age and ageing has been constructed as a ‘problem’.

Question 70

Ageism is thought to be the result of

Answer 70

“structured dependency”. The old are largely excluded from paid work, leaving them economically dependent on their families or the state. In modern society our identity and status, are largely determined by our role in production.
Those excluded from production by compulsory retirement have a dependent status and stigmatised identity.

Question 71

Phillipson (1982)

Answer 71

Argues that the old are of no use to capitalism because they are no longer productive.
As a result, the state is unwilling to support them adequately and so the family often takes responsibility of their care.

Question 72

Post-modernist views on fixed life stages, ageism:

Answer 72

Postmodernists argue that the fixed, orderly stages of the life course have broken down. Trends such as children dressing in adult styles, later marriage, and early retirement all begin to blur the lines between the life stages.
This gives individuals greater choice of lifestyles, whatever the age.

Question 73

Fixed life stages and age-related identities:

Answer 73

In modern society, life is structured in a fixed series of stages. Age becomes important in role allocation, creating fixed life stages and age-related identities.
The old are thus excluded from a role in the labour force and made dependent and powerless.

Question 74

Hunt

Answer 74

Consumption is key to defining our identities. Hunt argues this means we can choose a lifestyle and identity regardless of our age - it no longer determines who we are or how we live.

Question 75

Effects of an Ageing population:

Increased consumption

Answer 75

The old have become a market for a vast range of “body maintenance” goods and services through which they can create their identities.
E.g Cosmetic surgery, exercise equipment, gym memberships and anti-ageing products.

Question 76

Age Concern (2004)

Answer 76

Found more people reported age discrimination than any other form.

Question 77

Less Age Stigma

Answer 77

The centrality of media and the emphasis on surface features undermine age as a stigmatised life stage.
Cosmetic surgery, exercise equipment, gym memberships and anti-ageing products as trends also begin to break down the ageist stereotypes found in modern society.

Question 78

Pilcher (1995)

Answer 78

Argues inequalities such as class and gender remain important, not just ageism. Many of these are related to the individuals previous occupational position. 
For example: 
The middle class have better occupational pensions and greater savings from higher salaries. 
Poorer old people have a shorter life expectancy and suffer more infirmity, harder to maintain youthful self-identity. 
Women's lower earnings and career breaks as carers mean lower pensions.

Question 79

Post-modernist views on fixed life stages, ageism:

EVALUATION

Answer 79

Are criticised for understating the importance of other inequalities. These are related to the wider structures of society and they play a major part in shaping the experience of old age, often restricting the freedom of the elderly to choose an identity through their consumption. Older people also face discrimination that limits their choices.

Question 80

What is meant by the ‘structured dependency of the old’?

Answer 80

The old are largely excluded from paid work, leaving them economically dependent on their families and the state.

Question 81

What is meant by the ‘feminisation of later life’?

Answer 81

Among over 75s there are twice as many women as men. Therefore age is viewed as a feminine thing.

Question 82

What is Migration?

Answer 82

The movement of people from place to place.

Question 83

Internal migration:

Answer 83

Migration within a country/society.

Question 84

International migration:

Answer 84

Migration between different countries.

Question 85

What is Immigration?

Answer 85

The movement of people into a society.

Question 86

What is Emigration?

Answer 86

The movement of people out of a society.

Question 87

What is Net Migration?

Answer 87

The difference between the numbers immigrating and emigrating, expressed as a net increase or decrease due to migration.

Question 88

What was the growth of the UK population throughout the 20th century a result of?

Answer 88

Natural Increase.

Question 89

Until the 1980s in England the numbers…

Answer 89

immigrating were lower than those emigrating.

Question 90

What was the largest immigrant group to the UK from 1900 - WW2?

Answer 90

The Irish - mainly for economic reasons, followed by Eastern and Central European Jews - who were often fleeing persecution, and people of British descent, from Canada and the US.

Question 91

Who began immigrating to Britain in the 1950s?

Answer 91

Black immigrants from the Caribbean.

Question 92

Who migrated to Britain in the 1960s and 70s?

Answer 92

South Asian immigrants (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka), and East Africans (Uganda, Kenya).

Question 93

What percentage of the total population did minority ethnic groups account for in 2011?

Answer 93

12.1%

Question 94

Immigration and Nationality Acts (1962 - 1990):

Answer 94

Placed severe restrictions on non-white immigration.

Question 95

Immigration by the 1980s:

Answer 95

Non-white immigrants only accounted for 1/4 of all immigrants, with white people from the European Union making up the main source of immigration.

Question 96

From as early as the mid-16th century until the 1980s the UK was always a net exporter of people:

What does that mean?

Answer 96

More people were emigrate than have come to settle.

Question 97

Where have the majoroty of people emigrated from Britain to since 1900?

Answer 97

• The US
• The old Commonwealth countries (Canada, Australia, New Zealand)
• South Africa

Question 98

Reasons for Emigration:

Answer 98

1) Economic: ‘Push factors’ = economic recession and unemployment. ‘Pull factors’ = high wages or better opportunities abroad (labour shortages in these countries).
2) Religious, political or racial persecution.

Question 99

Impact of Migration on UK population structure:

Population Size

Answer 99

Population increased from 1992 to 2004 becuase of the expansion of the EU in 2004 to include ten new member states, mostly in Eastern Europe which gave citizens the right to live and work in the UK.

Question 100

What was the net migration in 2012?

Answer 100

176, 000 (497,000 immigrating and 321,000 emigrating).

Question 101

What was net migration in 2004?

Answer 101

223,000 - the highest net inflow of people since 1991. (Key reason=expansion of EU)

Question 102

The Impact of Migration on UK population Structure:

Age Structure

Answer 102

• Both immigratnts and emmigrants are generally young. (More likely male than female)
• Immigarnts are more fertile becuase they are younger - produce more babies.
• Significant number of emigrants are old - 40%

Question 103

What percentage of Emigrants are older?

Answer 103

40% - move to EU contries like Spain to retire.

Question 104

Average age of UK passport holders and non-Uk passport holders (2011):

Answer 104

In 2011 the average age of UK passport holders was 41, whereas the average age of non-UK passport holders was 31.

Question 105

The Impact of Migration on the UK population Structure?

The Dependency Ratio

Answer 105

• On the one hand migrants are mainly of working age and this reduces dependency, however immigrant women tend to have higher fertility rates.
• Short term these higher fertility rates contribute to a higher dependency, but in the long term this produces more workers, helping to reduce ratio.
• The longer a group is settled in a particular country, the closer their fertility rates come to the national average, reducing their overall imapct on the dependency ratio.

Question 106

The Impact of Migration on UK population Structure:

Distribution of the population - internal migration

Answer 106

• Internal migration during the inductrial revolution caused a population shift from the largely agricultural South to the industrial North for jobs in mining, shipbuilding, steel e.c.t.
• In 1851, Britain was the first country to see more than half its population living in towns and cities.
• However, in the 20th century these industries declined and gave way to newer ones (electrical engineering, cars), developing in the south and midlands, which catalysed a population shift in the opposite diorection in search of job opportunities.
• London and the South East have exerted an important pull more recently becuase of the growth in finance and service industries there.
• Suburbinisation, reversal of the outflow of population from inner city areas.

Question 107

What is suburbanisation?

Answer 107

The growth of large residential areas surrounding major cities.

Question 108

How do younger immigrants effect the the UK’s population structure?

Answer 108

• More fertile - increases birth rates
• Of working age - decreases dependency ratio

Question 109

What is globalisation?

Answer 109

The idea that barriers between societies are disappearing and poeple are becomming increasingly interconnected across national boundaries.

Question 110

What is a major social change resulting from globalisation?

Answer 110

International migration.

Question 111

What is globalisation the result of?

Answer 111

• The growth of communication systems
• Global Media
• The creation of global markets
• The fall of communism in Eastern Europe
• Expansion of the Europeian Union

Question 112

Trends in Global Migration:

Acceleartion

Answer 112

The rate of migration has sped up. Betweem 2000-2013 international migration has increased by 33%.

Question 114

How many people entered or left the UK in 2013?

Answer 114

862,000 people

Question 115

United Nations study on trends in global migration (2013)

Answer 115

Found that between 2000-2013 international migration increased by 33% to reach 232 million or 3.2% of the worlds population.

Question 116

Trends in Global Migration:

Differentiation

Answer 116

Globalisation is increasing the diversity og types of migrants. There are many types, including: permanent settlers, temporary workers, spouses, and forced migrants such as refugees and asylum seekers. Some may have legal entitlement, while others enter without permission.

Question 117

Immigration before the 1990s:

Answer 117

Came from a fairly narrow rang of former British colonies, most had the right to settle and formed stable, geographically conentrated and homogeneous ethic communities.

Question 118

Vetrovec (2007)

Answer 118

‘Super-diversity’ = Migrants now come from a much wider range of coubtries and a given ethnic group may increasingly be divided by culture or religion and be widely dispersed throughout the UK.

Question 119

Cohen (2006)

Answer 119

Distinguishes three types of migrant.

Question 120

Cohen (2006): Types of Migrant

Citizens

Answer 120

Migrants with full citizenship rights e.g voting rights and access to benefits. Since the 1970s, the UK has made it harder for immigrants to acquire these rights.

Question 121

Cohen (2006): Types of Migrant

Denizens

Answer 121

Privaleged foreign nationals welcomed by the state e.g. billionaire oligarchs or highly paid employees of multinational companies.

Question 122

Cohen (2006): Types of Migrant

Helots

Answer 122

Are the most exploited group (Literally slaves). States and employers regard them as ‘disposable units of labour power’, a reserve army of labour. They are found in unskilled, poorly paid work, and include illegally trafficed workers and those tied to particular employers, such as domestic servants.

Question 123

Trends in Global Migration:

The Feminisation of Migration

Answer 123

• In the past migrants were men, however now almost half of all global migrants are female.
• ‘The globalisation of the gender division if labour’.
• There is a global transfer of women’s emotional labour, where migrant nannies provide care for their employers’ children at the expense of their own children left behind in a home country.
• Migrant women may enter western countries as ‘mail order brides’.
• Women may also enter the UK as illegally traffiked sex workers, kept in conditions amounting to slavery.

Question 124

What proportion of global migrants are female?

Answer 124

Almost 1/2.

Question 125

What is ‘the globalisation of the gender division of labour’?

Answer 125

Where female migrants find that they are being fitted into patriarchal stereotypes about women’s roles as carers or providers of sexual services.

Question 126

Ehrenreich and Hochschild (2003)

Answer 126

Observed that care work, domestic work, and sex work in western countries is increasingly performed by migrant women from poor countries.

Question 127

According to Ehrenreich and Hochschild (2003) why is care, domestic, and sex work increasingly performed by migrant women from poor countries?

Answer 127

• The expansion of service occupations in western countries which has led to an increased demand for female labour.
• Western women being less willing or able to perform domestic labour.
• An unwillingness amoung western men to perform domestic labour.
• The failure of the state to provide adequate childcare.

Question 128

Shutes (2011)

Answer 128

Reports that 40% of adult care nurses in the UK are migrants, and the majority of these are female.

Question 129

What does the phenomenon of ‘mail order’ brides reflect?

Answer 129

Gendered and racialised stereotypes, for example of oriental women as subservient.

Question 130

Global Migration - Impact on Families, Households, and Society:

Family + Household Diversity

Answer 130

• Increase in the range of families and households linked to ethnic differences: Black families more likely to be LPF, Asian families more likely to be larger.
• Increase in geographically dispersed extended families: Grandparents moving abroad to EU countries to retire.
• Increase in LATs or long distance relationships: People move for careers, or other push/pull factors but stay in relationships.

Question 131

Global Migration - Impact on Families, Households, and Society:

Population Size

Answer 131

• Increase in net migration/net inflow of people.

Question 132

Migrant Identities:

Answer 132

We all have multiple sources of identity: family, friends, neighbourhood, religion, nationality ect. that give us a sense of belonging and of who we are. For migrants and their descendants their country of origin may provide an additional or alternative source of identity. Migrants may deveop hybrid-identities.

Question 133

What are hybrid-identities?

Answer 133

Identities made up of two or more different sources.

Question 134

Eade (1994)

Answer 134

Found that second generation Bangladeshi Muslims in Britain created Heirarchical indetities: they saw themselves as Muslims first, then Bengali, then British. Those with hybrid identities may find that other challenge their identity claims of accuse them of not fitting in.

Question 135

Types of Migrant Identity:

Answer 135

• Hybrid Identities
• Heirarchical Identites
• Cross-cultural Identites
• Transnational Identities

Question 136

Eriksen (2007)

Answer 136

• Globalisation has created more diverse migration patterns, with back-and-forth movemenrs of people through networks rather than permanent settlement in another country.
• As a result, migrants are less likely to see themselves as belonging completely to one culture.
• Instead, they develop transnational identities.

Question 137

What are transnational Identities?

Question 139

Eriksen - cross-cultural links:

Answer 139

Modern technology makes it possible to sustain global ties without having to travel. The globalised economy means that migrants may have more links to other migrants around the world than to either their country of origin or of settlemet.

Question 140

Eriksen (2007) - Chinese migrants in Rome

Answer 140

Describes Chinese migrants in Rome who found Mandarin more useful

Question 141

The politicisation of Migration:

Answer 141

• With increased global flows of migrants, migration has become an important political issue.
• States now have policies that seek to control immigration, absorb migrants into society and deal with increased ethnic and cultural diuversity.
• More recently immitgration policies have also become linked to national security and anti-terrorism policies.

Question 142

Immigration policies - Assimilationism:

Answer 142

• First state policy approach to immigration.
• Aimed to encourage immigrants to adopt the language, culture, value, customs and beliefs of the host culture.

Question 143

Evaluation of Assimulation Policies:

Answer 143

Face the problem that transnational migrants with hybrid identities may not be willing to abandon their culture or to see themselevs as belonging to just one nation-state.

Question 144

Immigration policies - Multiculturalism:

Answer 144

• Policy that accepts that migrants may wish to retain a seperate cultural identity.
• From 1960s tehre was a move torwards multiculturalism.

Question 145

Evaluation of Multiculturalism policies:

Answer 145

• From the 1960s there was a move torwards multiculturalism, but since the 9/11 Islamic terrorist attack in 2001, many politicians have swung back to demanding migrants assimulate culturally.
• In practice, multicultural acceptance may be limited to more superficial acts of cultural diversity e.g. chiken tikka masala as Britains national dish.

Question 146

Example of Assimilation Policy:

France (2010)

Answer 146

The veiling of the face in public was made illegal.

Question 147

Eriksen - Shallow diversity:

Answer 147

A type of multiculturalism which is acceptable to the state, such as regarding chicken tikka masala as Britain’s national dish.

Question 148

Eriksen - Deep diversity

Answer 148

A type of multiculturalism that accepts arranged marriages or the veiling of women, which is not acceptable to the state.

Question 149

Castles (2000)

Answer 149

Argues that assimulationist policies are counter-productive becuase they mark out minority groups as culturally backward or ‘other’. This can lead to minoroties responding by emphasisng their differences, as in the case of Islamic Fundamentalism. This increases the hosts’ suspicion of them as the ‘enemy within’ and promotes further marginalisation, defeating its own goal.

Question 150

Castles and Kosack (1973)

Answer 150

State that assimilation policies may encourage workers to blame migrants for social problems such as unemployment, resulting in racist scapegpoating. This benefits capitalism by creating a racially divided working class and preventing untied action in defence of proletariat interests.

Question 151

Identify two disadvantages and advantages of immigrants living in stable, geographically concentrated and homologous ethnic communities:

Answer 151

Advantages:

1. Promotes ethnic/cultural businesses/sectors e.g. chinatown
2. Gives people there a sense of community, can rely on eachother for support.

Disadvantages:

1. Creates a barrier to integration if they have little contact with the host country’s citizens.
2. Can also encourage their marginalisation - when they have little contact w the outside world, ignorance leads to racism.

Question 152

Identify a possible negative consequence of transnational identities:

Answer 152

Migrants might not have full loyalty to the country theyre living in = neither nor.