Fallacies Flashcards
Abusive Analogy
An analogy is drawn to bring arguer into scorn/disrepute
“though he knows as much about XXX as a __salesman__”
Accent
Change the meaning of statements based on word stressing
Discredit others by quoting them with emphasis
Analogical fallacy
Analogies are tools of communication more than sources of knowledge
Devastatingly effective when used against the person who first produced it
Seize upon one used and continue in a way more conducive to own argument
“Looks more like a cabbage to me”
Family life evokes a pleasant glow
Allows to argue for almost anything
Apriorism
Use principles as a basis for accepting or rejecting facts
Do not dismiss facts, rather, reinterpret them
Bifurcation
Black or white. Make the choice straightforward, remove all intermediate options
Offer a choice limited to something unpleasant or the course you advocate
“Either we do this, or we will be mocked and ridiculed.”
Blinding with science
Use technical jargon to deceive audience into supposing objective experimental evidence supports them
Bogus dilemma
Falsely presenting a dilemma where none exists
- Deny consequences that follow
- Show black or white choice is false
- Rebutt it using same elements
Complex question - Plurium interrogationum
Contains an assumption that the concealed question is answered affirmatively
Turn the actual question into presupposed fact
“Have you stopped beating your wife?”
“Did your misleading claims result in you being promoted?”
“Who was that lady I saw you with last night?”
“Would you prefer to watch a show now, or after dinner?”
Concealed quantification
Ambiguity of expression permits a misunderstanding of the quantity which is spoken of
Use to condemn whole groups on basis of some members
Damning the alternatives
Denigrate the alternatives
Definitional retreat
Change the meaning of words in order to deal with an objection raised with the original wording
Save face by putting forward a totally different view
“When I said XXX, I was naturally referring to so and so, rather than you”
Presume that everyone understood the second meaning all along
“Everyone knows that when we say XXX, we use the xxx definition.”
Emotional appeals
Discover the emotional disposition of audience
Use language calculated to arouse that emotion
Build it up assiduously by graphic descriptions, and turn it to bear on question of fact
People equate reason with a quiet life
“Let’s be reasonable about this.”
Equivocation
Using words ambiguously
“Rest assured it will receive the attention it fully deserves.”
Joins irreconcilable differences with a smooth finish
“Realistic penalties” “Humane/fair consideration”
Every child knows
Secure acquiescence
Audience does not wish to be ignorant of matters widely understood by children
Assertions are passed off unquestioned
Hedging
Sheltering behind ambiguous meanings
Involves advance preparation for a definitional retreat
“You will find xxx desposited on your table.” <- WHEN??
Hominem (abusive), argumentum ad
Attack the character of the arguer
Hostile material should be introducted with apparent reluctance, and made to bear on whether the opponent deserves consideration by the worthy audience
“It is with a heavy heart…”
Irrelevant humour
Direct attention away from the argument
Loaded words
Deliberate use of prejudiced terms
Conjure up an attitude more favourable or hostile than the unadorned facts would elicit
“found” implies discovered in a guilty secret
careful words of a respected person vs incoherent/ridiculous ramblings of a joker
Poisoning the well
Discredit opposition before they have uttered a word
“Everyone except an idiot knows…”
“There may be those with defective judgement who….”
“Only those who are sexually inadequate…”
Recommended when claim will not survive sustained scrutiny
Useful for dealing with points against received opinion
Red herrings
Irrelevant material is used to divert people away from the point being made
Select red herrings on the basis of known interests to audience
e.g. introduce the subject to the arguer’s bad back, or his summer holidays, or pet
Reification
Supposition that words must denote real things
“extracted the blueness of the sky and inserted it into xxx”
Runaway train
…….
Shifting ground
Shift the substance of what was being said while claiming continuity
“I said the project is XXX. However, I share the objections you have voiced and can only say how this reinforces a view that it is not good enough for a project to be XXX.”
Use this to avoid it being known that you were wrong
“After hearing his POV, I feel that his amendment represents the spirit of what i was trying to say. I therefore accept his amendment as an improvement to my proposal/motion.”
Shifting the burden of proof
Put forward an assertion without justification
Make the audience prove your claims are wrong
“Can you show me one convincing piece of evidence which disproves this?”
Tempt the audience into supplying instances, giving you a chance to ‘refute the exampes’ rather than giving arguments in favour of the case
Slippery slope
….
Straw man
Misrepresent opponent’s position
Extreme views are easier to argue against
